OL 


SERIES. 


:RST  BOOKS  OF  NATURAL  HISTORY. 


ELEMENTS  OF  HERPETOLOG: 

AND    OF 

ICHTHYOLOGY: 

PREPARED  FOR  THE  USE  OF 

SCHOOLS  AND  COLLEGES, 

BY 

W.   S.  \V.  RUSCI1ENBERGER,   M.D. 

Surgeon  in  the  U.  S.  Navy;  ITello'w  of   the  College  of  Physicians;   lie 
Member  of  the  Philadelphia  Medical  Society  ;  Member  of  the 
Academy  of  Natural  Sciences  of  Philadelphia,  Sec.  &o. 

FROIW   THE  TEXT  OF 

MILNE  EDWARDS,  AND  ACHILLE  COMTE, 

PROFESSORS   OF   NATURAL   HISTORY   IN   THE   COLLEGES 
'-  OF   HENRI  IV,    AND    CHARLEMAGNE. 


•WITH     PLATES. 


PHILADELPHIA: 

GRIGG    &   ELLIOT, 

NT0.   9    NORTH   FOURTH  STREET, 

1844. 


j 


THE  LIBRARY 

OF 

THE  UNIVERSITY 
OF  CALIFORNIA 

PRESENTED  BY 

PROF.  CHARLES  A.  KOFOID  AND 
MRS.  PRUDENCE  W.  KOFOID 


CHEAP  BOOKS, 

PUBLISHED    AND    FOR    SALE    BY 

GRIGG    &    ELLIOT, 

No.  9,  N.  FOURTH  ST.,  PHILADELPHIA, 
And  for  Sale  by  Booksellers  generally  in  the  United  States. 


THE  following  books  are  particularly  adapted  for  family  reading,  and  we 
do  hope,  as  our  political  troubles  are  ended  for  awhile,  that  our  friends  will 
now  settle  down  to  their  "  sober  second  thoughts,"  and  as  "  knowledge  is 

wer,"  and  "information  capital,"  that  instead  of  being  satisfied  with  the 
periodical  trash  of  the  day,  they  will  store  their  minds  with  something 
more  solid,  and  for  that  purpose  make  a  selection  from  the  following  list : 

MASON'S  POPULAR  SYSTEM  OF  FARRIERY;  comprising  a 
general  description  of  the  noble  and  useful  animal  the  Horse,  together  with 
the  quickest  and  simplest  mode  of  fattening ;  necessary  treatment  while 
undergoing  excessive  fatigue,  or  on  a  journey ;  the  construction  and  man- 
agement of  stables ;  different  marks  for  ascertaining  the  age  of  a  Horse : 
also,  a  concise  account  of  the  diseases  to  which  the  Horse  is  subject ;  with 
such  remedies  as  long  experience  has  proved  to  be  effectual.  By  Richard 
Mason,  M.  D.,  formerly  of  Surrey  Co.,  Va.  Ninth  edition,  with  additions. 
To  which  is  added,  a  Prize  Essay  on  Mules,  and  Jin  Appendix  containing 
observations  and  recipes  for  the  cure  of  most  of  the  common  distempers 
incident  to  Horses,  Oxen,  Cows,  Calves,  Sheep,  Lambs,  Swine,  Dogs,  &c. 
&c.  Selected  from  different  authors.  Also,  an  Addenda,  containing  Annals 
of  the  Turf,  American  Stud  Book,  Rules  for  Training,  Racing,  &c. 

The  publishers  have  received  numerous  flattering  notices  of  the  great  practical 
value  of  these  works.  The  distinguished  editor  of  the  American  Farmer,  speak- 
ing of  them,  observes — "  We  cannot  too  highly  recommend  these  books,  and 
therefore  advise  every  owner  of  a  horse  to  obtain  them." 

THE  STOCK  RAISERS  MANUAL  ;  a  Guide  to  the  raising  and  im- 
provement of  Cattle,  being  a  Treatise  on  their  Breeds,  Management  and 
Diseases.  By  W.  Youatt,  author  of  a  "Treatise  on  the  Horse,"  with 
numerous  Illustrations.  Complete  in  1  vol.  8vo. 

This  work  will  be  found  of  the  greatest  importance  to  Farmers  and  Cattle  Rais- 
ers throughout  the  United  States,  and  should  be  in  the  possession  of  every  Farmer, 
as  it  is  the  most  complete  work  on  this  subject  ever  published. 

HIND'S  POPULAR  SYSTEM  OF  FARRIERY,  taught  on  a  new 
and  easy  plan,  being  a  Treatise  on  all  the  diseases  and  accidents  to  which 
the  Horse  is  liable.  With  considerable  additions  and  improvements, 
adapted  particularly  to  this  country,  by  Thomas  M.  Smith,  Veterinary  Sur- 
geon, and  Member  of  the  London  Veterinary  Medical  Society.  In  1  vol. 
12mo. 


CHEAP    BOOKS    PUBLISHED    BY    GR1GG    &    ELLIOT. 


LETTERS  FROM  A  FATHER  TO  HIS  SONS  IN  COLLEGE. 

By  Samuel  Miller,  D.  D.,  Professor  in  the  Theological  Seminary,  Prince- 
ton, New  Jersey. 

The  writer  of  this  volume  has  had  five  sons  trained  and  graduated  in  the  College 
of  New  Jersey.  These  Letters,  not  indeed  precisely  in  their  present  form,  but 
in  substance,  were  actually  addressed  to  them.  There  is,  probably,  not  one  idea 
contained  in  this  manual  which  was  not,  during  their  course  in  the  Institution,  dis- 
tinctly communicated  to  them,  either  orally  or  in  writing.  The  influence  of  these 
counsels  on  their  minds,  it  is  believed,  was  not  wholly  useless.  May  they  prove 
still  more  useful  when  presented  in  this  revised  and  more  public  form. 

THE  IMPORTANCE  OF  FAMILY  RELIGION  ;  with  a  Selection 
of  Hymns  and  Prayers,  adapted  to  Family  Worship,  and  Tables  for  the 
regular  Reading  of  the  Scriptures.  By  the  Rev.  S.  G.  Winchester,  A.  M., 
late  Pastor  of  the  Sixth  Presbyterian  Church,  Philadelphia,  ,and  the  Pres- 
byterian Church  at  Natchez,  Miss.  In  1  vol.  12mo. 

The  subject  is  one  of  incalculable  practical  importance,  and  is  treated  in  a  mas- 
terly manner.  It  contains  an  able,  elaborate  and  highly  instructive  Essay  on  the 
obligation,  nature  and  importance  of  Family  Religion;  and  we  hope,  ere  long,  it 
will  be  found  in  the  Library  of  every  family. 

BOOK  OF  POLITENESS.— The  Gentleman  and  Lady's  Book  of  Po- 
liteness and  Propriety  of  Deportment.  Dedicated  to  the  Youth  of  both 
sexes.  By  Madame  Celnart.  Translated  from  the  Sixth  Paris  edition, 
enlarged  and  improved.  Fifth  American  edition. 

THE  BEAUTIES  OF  HISTORY,  or  Examples  of  the  Opposite 
Effects  of  Virtue  and  Vice,  for  the  use  of  Schools  and  Families,  with 
Questions  for  the  Examination  of  Students.  1  vol.  12mo.,  with  plates. 

This  work  is  introduced  into  our  High  School.  It  is  particularly  adapted  for  a 
Class  Book  in  all  our  male  and  female  Seminaries,  &c. 

"We  have  received  from  the  publishers,  Messrs.  Grigg  &  Elliot,  a  very  neat 
duodecimo  volume,  entitled  '  The  Beauties  of  History  ;  or,  Examples  of  the  oppo- 
site effects  of  Virtue  and  Vice,  drawn  from  real  life.'  After  a  careful  examination 
of  this  book,  we  can  conscientiously  recommend  it  to  parents  and  teachers  as  a 
most  meritorious  performance.  There  are  here  collected,  within  a  narrow  com- 
pass, the  most  striking  examples  of  individual  virtue  and  vice  which  are  spread 
forth  on  the  pages  of  history,  or  are  recorded  in  personal  biography.  The  noblest 
precepts  are  recommended  for  the  guidance  of  youth ;  and  in  the  most  impressive 
manner  is  he  taught  to  conquer  the  degrading  impulses  which  lower  the  standard 
of  the  human  character.  We  have  not  lately  met  with  a  volume  which,  in  design 
and  execution,  seemed  so  acceptable  as  this.  The  book,  moreover,  is  handsomely 
got  up,  and  illustrated  with  wood  engravings." 

GRIMSHAW'S  LADIES'  LEXICON,  and  Parlour  Companion;  con- 
taining nearly  every  word  in  the  English  language,  and  exhibiting  the 
plurals  of  nouns  and  the  participles  of  verbs,  being  also  particularly  adapted 
to  the  use  of  Academies  and  Schools.  By  William  Grimshaw,  Esq.,  author 
of  the  Gentlemen's  Lexicon,  &c. 

THE  GENTLEMEN'S  LEXICON,  or  Pocket  Dictionary ;  containing 
nearly  every  word  in  the  English  language,  and  exhibiting  the  plurals  of 
nouns  and  the  participles  of  verbs ;  being  also  particularly  adapted  to  the 
use  of  Academies  and  Schools.  By  William  Grimshaw,  author  of  the 
Ladies'  Lexicon,  History  of  England,  of  the  United  States,  &c. 

"  TLie  public  are  again  indebted  to  the  talents  of  Mr.  Grimshaw,  for  the  very 
useful  books  which  he  has  called  '  The  Ladies'  and  Gentlemen's  Lexicon.'  The 
peculiarity  and  advantages  of  these  works  may  be  collected  from  the  following 


CHEAP    BOOKS    PUBLISHED    BY    GRIGG    &   ELLIOT. 


portion  of  the  preface.  '  They  differ  from  all  preceding  works  of  the  kind  in  this, 
that  they  exhibit  the  plurals  of  all  nouns  which  are  not  formed  by  the  mere  addi- 
tion of  the  letter  S,  and  also  the  participles  of  every  verb  now  generally  used,  and 
unless  accompanied  by  a  particular  caution.  No  word  has  been  admitted  which  is 
not  now  of  polite  or  popular  use,  and  no  word  has  been  excluded  which  is  required 
either  in  epistolary  composition  or  conversation/  " 

A  DICTIONARY  OF  SELECT  AND  POPULAR  QUOTATIONS, 

which  are  in  daily  use  :  taken  from  the  Latin,  French,  Greek,  Spanish,  and 
Italian  languages  ;  together  with  a  copious  collection  of  Law  maxims  and 
Law. terms ;  translated  into  English,  with  illustrations,  historical  and  idio- 
matic. Sixth  American  edition,  corrected  with  additions.  1  vol.  12mo. 

In  preparing  this  sixth  edition  for  the  press,  care  has  been  taken  to  give  the  work 
a  thorough  revision,  to  correct  some  errors  which  had  before  escaped  notice,  and 
to  insert  many  additional  Quotations,  Law  maxims  and  Law  terms.  In  this  state 
it  is  offered  to  the  public  in  the  stereotype  form.  This  little  work  should  find  its 
way  into  every  family  library. 

MALTE-BRUN'S  NEW  AND   ELEGANT  QUARTO  ATLAS; 

containing  forty  coloured  maps. 

The  Atlas  is  particularly  adapted  for  Colleges,  Academies,  Schools,  and  private 
families.  There  is  no  work  that  ever  was  published  in  this  country  which  has 
received  more  numerous  and  flattering  recommendations. 

THE  AMERICAN  CHESTERFIELD;  or  "Youth's  Guide  to  the 
Way  to  Wealth,  Honor,  and  Distinction,"  &c. :  containing  also  a  complete 
treatise  on  the  art  of  Carving. 

"  We  most  cordially  recommend  the  American  Chesterfield  to  general  atten- 
tion ;  but  to  young  persons  particularly,  as  one  of  the  best  works  of  the  kind  that 
has  ever  been  published  in  this  country.  It  cannot  be  too  highly  appreciated,  nor 
its  perusal  be  unproductive  of  satisfaction  and  usefulness." 

SENECA'S  MORALS— By  way  of  abstract  to  which  is  added,  a  Dis- 
course under  the  title  of  an  After-Thought,  by  Sir  Roger  L'Estrange,  Knt. 
A  new  fine  edition,  in  1  vol.  18mo. 

A  copy  of  this  valuable  little  work  should  be  found  in  every  family  library. 

THE  DAUGHTER'S  OWN  BOOK;  Or  Practical  Hints  from  a  Fa- 
ther to  his  Daughter.  In  1  vol.  18mo. 

This  is  one  of  the  most  practical  and  truly  valuable  treatises  on  the  culture  and 
discipline  of  the  female  mind,  which  has  hitherto  been  published  in  this  country, 
and  the  publishers  are  very  confident,  from  the  great  demand  for  this  invaluable 
little  work,  that  ere  long  it  will  be  found  in  the  library  of  every  young  lady. 

GOLDSMITH'S  ANIMATED  NATURE,  in  2  vols.  8vo.,  beautifully 
illustrated. 

"  Goldsmith  can  never  be  made  obsolete,  while  delicate  genius,  exquisite  feeling, 
fine  invention,  the  most  harmonious  metre,  and  the  happiest  diction  are  at  all 
valued." 

This  is  a  work  that  should  be  in  the  library  of  every  family,  being  written  by 
one  of  the  most  talented  authors  in  the  English  language. 

THE  WORKS  OF  LAURENCE  STERNE,  in  1  vol.  8vo.,  with  a 
life  of  the  author,  written  by  himself. 

The  beauties  of  this  Author  are  so  well  known,  and  his  errors  in  style  and 
expression  so  few  and  far  between,  that  one  reads  with  renewed  delight  his  deli- 
cate turns,  &c. 


CHEAP    BOOKS    PUBLISHED    BY    GR1GG    &    ELLIOT. 


JOSEPHUS'S  (FLAVIUS)  WORKS.  By  the  late  William  Whiston, 
A.  M.  From  the  last  London  edition,  complete. 

As  a  matter  of  course,  every  family  in  our  country  has  a  copy  of  the  Holy  Bible 
— and  as  the  presumption  is,  the  greater  portion  often  consult  its  pages,  we  take 
the  liberty  of  saying  to  all  those  that  do,  that  the  perusal  of  the  writings  of  Jose- 
phus  will  be  found  very  interesting  and  instructing. 

All  those  who  wish  to  possess  a  beautiful  and  correct  copy  of  this  invaluable 
work,  would  do  well  to  purchase  this  edition.  It  is  for  sale  at  all  the  principal 
bookstores  in  the  United  States,  by  country  merchants  generally  in  the  Southern 
and  Western  States. 

SAY'S  POLITICAL  ECONOMY.  A  Treatise  on  Political  Economy, 
or  the  Production,  Distribution,  and  Consumption  of  Wealth.  By  Jean 
Baptiste  Say.  Fifth  American  edition,  with  Additional  Notes,  by  C.  C. 
Biddle,  Esq.,  in  1  vol.  8vo. 

The  editor  of  the  North  American  Review,  speaking  of  Say,  observes,  that 
"  he  is  the  most  popular,  and  perhaps  the  most  able  writer  on  Political  Economy, 
since  the  time  of  Smith." 

BENNET'S  (Rev.  John)  LETTERS  TO  A  YOUNG  LADY,  on  a 

variety  of  subjects  calculated  to  improve  the  heart,  to  form  the  manners, 
and  enlighten  the  understanding.  "  That  our  Daughters  may  be  as  polished 
corners  of  the  Temple." 

The  publishers  sincerely  hope,  (for  the  happiness  of  mankind,)  that  a  copy  of  this 
valuable  little  work  will  be  found  the  companion  of  every  young  lady,  as  much  of 
the  happiness  of  every  family  depends  on  the  proper  cultivation  of  the  female  mind. 

BURDER'S  VILLAGE  SERMONS,  or  101  plain  and  short  Discourses 
on  the  principal  doctrines  of  the  Gospel ;  intended  for  the  use  of  families, 
Sunday  schools,  or  companies  assembled  for  religious  instruction  in  country 
villages.  By  George  Burder.  To  which  is  added,  to  each  Sermon,  a  short 
Prayer,  with  some  general  prayers  for  families,  schools,  &c.,  at  the  end  of 
the  work.  Complete  in  1  vol.  8vo. 

These  sermons,  which  are  characterized  by  a  beautiful  simplicity,  the  entire 
absence  of  controversy,  and  a  true  evangelical  spirit,  have  gone  through  many  and 
large  editions,  and  been  translated  into  several  of  the  continental  languages. 
"  They  have  also  been  the  honored  means  not  only  of  converting  many  individuals, 
but  also  of  introducing  the  Gospel  into  districts,  and  even  into  parish  churches, 
where  before  it  was  comparatively  unknown." 

"  This  work  fully  deserves  the  immortality  it  has  attained." 

This  is  a  fine   library  edition  of  this  invaluable  work,  and  when  we  say  that  it 

should  be  found  in  the  possession  of  every  family,  we  only  reiterate  the  sentiments 

and  sincere  wishes  of  all  who  take  a  deep  interest  in  the  eternal  welfare  of  mankind. 

NEW  SONG  BOOK.— Grigg's  Southern  and  Western  Songster;  being 
a  choice  collection  of  the  most  fashionable  songs,  many  of  which  are  ori- 
ginal, in  1  vol.  18mo. 

Great  care  was  taken  in  the  selection,  to  admit  no  song  that  contained,  in  the 
slightest  degree,  any  indelicate  or  improper  allusions,  and  with  great  propriety  it 
may  claim  the  title  of  "  The  Parlour  Song  Book  or  Songster."  The  immortal 
Shakspeare  observes — 

''The  man  that  hath  not  music  in  himself, 
Nor  is  not  moved  with  concord  of  sweet  sounds, 
Is  fit  for  treasons,  stratagems,   and  spoils." 

FAMILY  PRAYERS  AND  HYMNS,  adapted  to  family  worship,  and 
tables  for  the  regular  reading  of  the  Scriptures.  By  Rev.  S.  C.  Winches- 
ter, A.  M.,  late  Pastor  of  the  Sixth  Presbyterian  Church,  Philadelphia,  and 
the  Presbvterian  Church  at  Natchez,  Miss.  1  vol.  12mo. 


CHEAP    BOOKS    PUBLISHED    BY    GRIGG    &   ELLIOT. 


BYRON'S  WORKS,  complete  in  1  vol.  8vo.,  including  all  his  Sup- 
pressed and  Attributed  Poems. 

$3°  This  edition  has  been  carefully  compared  with  the  recent  London  edition  of 
Mr.  Murray,  and  made  complete  by  the  addition  of  more  than  fifty  pages  of  poems 
heretofore  unpublished  in  England.  Among  these  there  are  a  number  that  have 
never  appeared  in  any  American  edition  ;  and  tbe  Publishers  believe  they  are  war- 
ranted in  saying,  that  this  is  the  most  complete  edition  of  Lord  Byron's  Poetical 
Works  ever  published  in  the  United  States. 

COWPER  AND  THOMSON'S  PROSE  AND  POETICAL  WORKS, 

complete  in  1  vol.  8vo.,  including  two  hundred  and  fifty  Letters,  and  sundry 
Poems  of  Cowper,  never  before  published  in  this  country ;  and  of  Thom- 
son a  new  and  interesting  Memoir,  and  upwards  of  twenty  new  Poems,  for 
the  first  time  printed  from  his  own  Manuscripts,  taken  from  a  late  edition 
of  the  Aldine  Poets  now  publishing  in  London. 

The  distinguished  Professor  Silliman,  speaking  of  this  edition,  observes,  "  I  am 
as  much  gratified  by  the  elegance  and  fine  taste  of  your  edition,  as  by  the  noble 
tribute  of  genius  and  moral  excellence  which  these  delightful  authors  have  left  for 
all  future  generations ;  and  Cowper  especially,  is  not  less  conspicuous  as  a  true 
Christian  moralist  and  teacher,  than  as  a  poet  of  great  power  and  exquisite  taste." 

THE  POETICAL  WORKS  OF  MRS.  HEMANS,  complete  in  1  vol. 
8vo. 

?£r  This  is  a  new  and  complete  edition,  with  a  splendid  engraved  likeness  of 
Mrs.  Hemans,  on  steel. 

"  As  no  work  in  the  English  language  can  be  commended  with  more  confidence, 
it  will  argue  bad  taste  in  a  female  in  this  country  to  be  without  a  complete  edition 
of  the  writings  of  one  who  was  an  honor  to  her  sex  and  to  humanity,  and  whose 
productions,  from  first  to  last,  contain  no  syllable  calculated  to  call  a  blush  to  the 
cheek  of  modesty  and  virtue.  There  is,  moreover,  in  Mrs.  Hemans'  poetry  a 
moral  purity,  and  a  religious  feeling,  which  commend  it,  in  an  especial  manner,  to 
the  discriminating  reader.  No  parent  or  guardian  will  be  under  the  necessity  of 
imposing  restrictions  with  regard  to  the  free  perusal  of  every  production  emanating 
from  this  gifted  woman.  There  breathes  throughout  the  whole  a  most  eminent 
exemption  from  impropriety  of  thought  or  diction  ;  and  there  is  at  times  a  pen- 
siveness  of  tone,  a  winning  sadness  in  her  more  serious  compositions,  which  tells 
of  a  soul  which  has  been  lifted  from  the  contemplation  of  terrestrial  things,  to 
divine  communings  with  beings  of  a  purer  world." 

THE  POETICAL  WORKS  OF  ROGERS,  CAMPBELL,  MONT- 
GOMERY, LAMB,  AND  KIRK  WHITE,  complete  in  1  vol.  8vo. 

MILTON,  YOUNG,  GRAY,  BEATTIE,  AND  COLLINS'  POETI- 
CAL WORKS,  complete  in  1  vol.  8vo. 

HEBER,  POLLOK  AND  CRABBE'S  POETICAL  WORKS,  com- 
plete in  1  vol.  8vo. 

"  Among  the  beautiful,  valuable,  and  interesting  volumes  which  the  enterprise 
and  taste  of  our  publishers  have  presented  to  the  reading  community,  we  have  sel- 
dom met  with  one  which  we  have  more  cordially  greeted  and  can  more  confidently 
and  satisfactorily  recommend,  than  that,  embracing  in  a  single,  substantial,  well- 
bound,  and  handsomely  printed  octavo,  the  poetical  works  of  Bishop  Heber,  Ro- 
bert Pollok,  and  the  Rev.  George  Crabbe.  What  a  constellation  of  poetic  ardor, 
glowing  piety,  and  intellectual  brilliancy  !  Such  writers  require  no  eulogy.  Their 
fame  is  established  and  universal.  The  sublimity,  pathos,  and  piety  of  all  these 
writers,  have  given  them  a  rank  at  once  with  the  lovers  of  poetry  and  the  friends 
of  religion,  unsurpassed  perhaps  by  that  of  any  other  recent  authors  in  our  lan- 
guage. A  more  delightful  addition  could  scarcely  be  made  to  the  library  of  the 
gentleman  or  lady  of  taste  and  refinement.  The  prize  poems,  hymns,  and  mis- 


CHEAP    BOOKS    PUBLISHED    BY    GR1GG    &    ELLIOT. 


cellaneous  writings  of  Bishop  Heber,  the  -'  Course  of  Time'  by  Pollok,  and  the 
rich,  various,  and  splendid  productions  of  the  Rev.  George  Crabbe,  are  among  the 
standard  works,  the  classics  of  our  language.  To  obtain  and  preserve  them  in 
one  volume,  cannot  but  be  a  desirable  object  to  their  admirers."  And  it  is  to  be 
hoped  it  will  be  found  in  the  library  of  every  family. 

A  writer  in  the  Boston  Traveller  holds  the  following  language  with  reference  to 
these  valuable  editions : 

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Plate  1. 


Reptiles. 


RUSCHESTBEHGER'S   SERIES. 


FIRST  BOOKS  OF  NATURAL  HISTORY. 


ELEMENTS  OF  HERPETOLOGY, 

AND    OP 

ICHTHYOLOGY: 

PREPARED  FOR  THE  USE  OF 

SCHOOLS  AND  COLLEGES, 

BY 

W.  S.  W.  RUSCHENBERGER,  M.D. 

Burgeon  in  the  U.  S.  Navy ;  Fello-w  of  the  College  of  Physicians  ;   Hon. 

Member  of  the  Philadelphia  Medical  Society ;  Member  of  the 

Academy  of  Natural  Sciences  of  Philadelphia,  Sec.  Sec. 

FROM  THE  TEXT  OF 

MILNE  EDWARDS,  AND  ACHILLE  COMTE, 

PROFESSORS   OF   NATURAL  HISTORY   IN  THE   COLLEGES 
OF   HENRI   IV,    AND    CHARLEMAGNE. 


WITH     PLATES. 


PHILADELPHIA: 
GRIGG   &   ELLIOT, 

NO.   9    NORTH   FOURTH  STREET, 

1844. 


ENTERED  according  to  the  Act  of  Congress,  in  the  year  1841,  by 
W.  S.  W.  RtrscHENBERGER,  M.  D.,  in  the  Clerk's  Office  of  the  Eastern 
District  of  Pennsylvania. 

CHAMBER  OF  THE  BOARD  OF  CONTROLLERS, 
OF   THE 

PUBLIC    SCHOOLS. 

FIRST     SCHOOL     DISTRICT      OF     PENNSYLVANIA. 
Philadelphia,  December  14th,  1841. 

At  a  meeting  of  the  Board  of  Controllers  of  the  Public  Schools 
of  the  First  School  District,  of  Pennsylvania,  held  at  the  Con- 
trollers' Chamber,  on  Tuesday,  December  14th,  1841,  it  was 

RESOLVED  :  That  the  "  First  Book  of  Natural  History,  pre- 
pared for  the  use  of  Schools  and  Colleges,  by  W.  S.  W.  Ruschen- 
berger,  M.  D.,"  be  introduced  into  the  Grammar  Schools,  to  be 
used  therein  at  the  discretion  of  the  Visiting  Committees. 

THOMAS  B.  FLORENCE,  Secretary. 

From  the  minutes. 


STEREOTYPED  BY   J.   FAG  AN. 


PRINTED  BY  T.  K.   AND  P.  G.   COLLINS,  PHILADELPHIA. 


CONTENTS 

$&4 

FOURTH  BOOK  OF  NATURAL  HISTORY 


REPTILES. 
LESSON    I. 

General  Characters. —  Form. — Skeleton. —  Motion.  —  Nervous  System.  — 
Senses. — Nutrition. — Apparatus  of  Digestion. — Blood. — Respiration. — 
Lungs. — Temperature. — Secretions. — Eggs. — Classification. 

LESSON    II. 

Order  of  Chelonians,  or  Tortoises.  —  Organization. — Division  into  four 
Families. — Land  Tortoises. — Fresh  water  Tortoises. — River  Tortoises. 
— Sea  Tortoises. — Tortoise  Shell :  its  use. 

LESSON   III. 

Order  of  Sauria.— Organization. — Classification. 

Family  of  Crocodilida. — Circulation. — Habits — Crocodiles  properly  so  called 
— Alligators. 

Family  of  Lacertinida. — Characters. — Monitors. — Lizards. 

Family  of  Iguanida.— Characters. — Dragons. — Iguanas. — Basilisks. 

Family  of  Geckotida. — Characters. — Habits. 

Family  of  Chamseleonida. — Characters. — Common  Chameleon. 

Family  of  Scincoidea. — Characters. — Scinques. — Fossil  Saurians. 

Order  of  Ophidia,  or  Serpents. — Characters. 

Family  of  Anguina. — Characters. 

Family  of  Serpentia,  or  True  Serpents. — Coluber. — Boa. — Venomous  Ser- 
pents.— Rattle  Snake. — Trigonocephalus. — Vipers.— Naia,  or  Asps. — 
Effects  and  treatment  of  the  bites  ot  Vipers,  &c. 

Family  of  Nuda. — Characters. 

LESSON    IV. 

Order  of  Batrachia. — Organization. — Classification. 

Family  of  Anoura. — Metamorphosis  of  Tadpoles. — Habits. — Frogs. — Tree- 

Frogs — Toads.— Pipa. 

Family  of  Urodela. — Salamanders,  or  Water  Newts. 
Family  of  Branchifera. — Axolotl. — Menobranchus. — Proteus. — Siren. 
Family  of  Apoda.— Ceecilia. 


CONTENTS  OF  FOURTH  BOOK  OF  NATURAL  HISTORY. 

LESSON   V. 

FISHES. 

Class  of  Fishes. — General  Characters. — Form. — Integuments. — Skeleton  — 
Muscular  Apparatus.  —  Swimming -Bladder. —  Senses. —  Apparatus  01 
Digestion. — Circulation. — Respiration. — Animal  Electricity. —  Habits. — 
Fishing. — Classification. 

LESSON   VI. 

Order  of  Acanthopterygians. — Family  of  Percoides,  (Perches,  Rockfish.) — 
Family  of  Mulloides,  (Red-Mullets,  Flying-fishes.) — Family  of  Mailed- 
cheeks. — Family  of  Scienoides, — Family  of  Sparoides. — Family  of 
Menides. —  Family  of  Squamipennes. — Family  of  Labyrinthiform 
Pharyngeals.  —  Family  of  Scomberoides,  (  Mackerel.  —  Mackerel 
Fishery. — Tunny. — Sword- Fish,  &c. 

LESSON    VII. 

Order  of  Abdominal  Malacopterygians. — Division. 

Family  of  Cyprinoides. — Carp. — Gold-fish. — Gudgeon. — Tench,  See 

Family  of  Esoces. — Pike. — Exocets,  or  Flying-fishes. 

Family  of  Siluroides. — Electric  Silurus,  &c. 

Family  of  Salmonides. — Common  Salmon. — Salmon   Fishing. — Trout.  — • 

Smelt. 
Family  of  Clupese. — Herrings.— Herring  Fishing.  —  Shad. —  Sardines.  — 

Anchovies,  &c. 

LESSON    VIII. 

Order  of  Subbrachian  Malacopterygians. — Family  of  Gadoides. — Cods.— 
Common  Cod. — Cod  Fishery. — Whiting. — Hake. — Ling. 

Family  of  Pleuronectes. — Organization. — Plaice. — Turbot. — Sole.  — Family 
of  Discoboli. 

Family  of  Echeneis. — Remora,  or  Sucking-fish. 

Order  of  Apodous  Malacopterygians. — Eels. — Common  Eel.  —  Sea  Eel.— 
Gymnotus  Electricus. 

Order  of  Lophobranchians. — Organization. — Hippocampus. 

Order  of  Plectognathi. — Organization. — Diodon. — Trunk-fish. 

LESSON   IX. 

Division  of  Cartilaginous  Fishes,  or  Chondropterygians. — Organization. 
Order  of  Sturiones. — Sturgeons.. — Caviar — Fish-glue. 
Order  of  Selachii. — Sharks. — Saw-fish. — Rays. — Torpedo. 
Order  of  Cyclostomi. — Lampreys. — Myxines. 


PREFACE. 


The  Fourth  of  the  Series  of  First-Books  of  Natural  History,  treats  of 
Reptiles  and  Fishes,  two  classes  of  the  Animal  Kingdom,  which  are  vastly 
useful  to  man,  affording  him  inexhaustible  supplies  of  excellent  food.  Be- 
sides  being  useful,  they  are  deeply  interesting  in  a  physiological  point  oi 
view,  illustrating  as  they  do,  in  their  ecpnomy,  many  of  the  important  vital 
functions  of  our  own  organization.  In  them  we  see  how  the  allwise,  and 
benevolent  Creator  has  wonderfully  adapted  their  structure  to  the  circum- 
stances under  which  they  were  destined  to  breathe,  and  have  their  being  ; 
and  at  almost  every  step  we  might  pause  to  admire  the  surpassing  wisdom 
of  Him  who  made  them  such,  and  bow  down  in  gratitude  for  the  bounties 
showered  upon  us,  every  where  in  this  boundless  and  beautiful  creation. 
But  had  we  given  place  to  reflections  of  this  nature  in  the  course  of  our 
little  work,  we  should  have  far  exceeded  our  limits,  and  probably  obscured 
the  sketch  we  wished  to  draw  clear  and  intelligible. 

Some  objection  may  be  made  perhaps  to  the  systematic  names  and  tech- 
nical words,  which  have  been  necessarily  used  without  immediate  explana- 
tion.  To  meet  this  difficulty,  a  copious  glossary,  with  the  etymologies  and 
pronounciation  of  the  words,  has  been  added,  which  will  facilitate  the  young 
reader,  and  prepare  the  way  to  more  extensive  reading  on  the  subject.  It 
will  be  seen  that  many  of  the  words  which  have  been  explained  in  the 
glossaries  of  preceding  books  of  the  series,  are  also  found  in  the  present 
volume.  This  repetition  renders  each  book,  to  a  considerable  extent, 
available  by  itself,  and  obviates  the  necessity  of  recurring  from  one  to  the 
other  for  the  explanation  of  words.  All  persons  who  are  desirous  of  acquiring 
a  knowledge  of  Natural  History,  are  not  acquainted  with  the  Latin  and 
Greek  languages ;  therefore,  the  words  from  the  latter  have  been  printed  in 
italics,  in  preference  to  using  the  proper  Greek  characters,  and  the  omega, 
where  it  occurs  has  been  designated  thus,  6. 

As  in  the  preceding  volumes,  I  have  not  confined  myself  exclusively  to 
the  works  of  MM.  Edwards  and  Cornte,  the  chief  sources  from  which  the 
materials  of  these  Primers  have  been  derived ;  but  I  have  freely  availed 
myself  also  of  the  labours  of  Cuvier,  T.  Rymer  Jones,  and  others. 

It  is  not  designed  that  the  questions  at  the  foot  of  the  page  shall  be 
answered  by  repeating  the  text  from  memory ;  the  pupil  should  be  able  to 
give  the  facts  in  his  own  language,  and  sliow  he  understands  the  subject. 

The  plates  were  engraved  by  Mr.  G.  Thomas,  No.  37  South  Third  Street, 
Philadelphia. 

Philadelphia,  July,  1842 


HERPETOLOGY. 


LESSON    I. 

GENERAL  CHARACTERS. — Form. — Skeleton. — Motion.  —  Nervous 
System.  —  Senses.  —  Nutrition. — Apparatus  oj  Digestion. — 
Blood. — Respiration. — Lungs. — Temperature. —  Secretion.  — 
Eggs. — Classification. 

CLASS   OF   REPTILES. 

1.  That  part  of  Natural  History  which  treats  of  Reptiles,  is 
termed  Herpetology, — from  the  Greek,  erpeton,  a  creeping  thing, 
a  reptile,  and  logos,  a  discourse. 

2.  The  CLASS  OP  REPTILES  comprises  those  oviparous  verte- 
brate animals  that  have  cold  blood,  an  aerial  respiration,  and  an 
incomplete   circulation.     They   have   lungs  like  mammals  and 
birds ;  but   their  circulatory  apparatus  is  always  so   arranged 
that  a  part  of  the  venous  blood  mingles  with  the  arterial,  without 
having   passed  through  the  respiratory  organ,  and  in  general, 
this  mixture  takes  place  in  the  heart,  which  has  a  single  ventricle, 
into  which  both  auricles  open. 

3.  In  their  general  form,  reptiles  bear  a  closer  resemblance  to 
mammals  than  to  birds  ;  but  in  this  respect  they  vary  very  much. 
The  head  is  almost  always  small,  and  the  body  much  elongated, 
(Plate  I,  Jig.  1,  6,  and  7.) ;  sometimes  they  are  entirely  without 
extremities,  or  only  possess  vestiges  of  them  ;  but  most  of  these 
animals   have  four  paws,   formed   for   walking  or   swimming. 
Ordinarily,  their  extremities  are  too  short  to   prevent  the  body 
from  dragging  on  the  ground,  and,  instead  of  being  parallel  to 
the  axis  of  the  body  and  moving  in  this  direction,  they  generally 
stand  out  from  the  side  and  move  from  without  inwards,  perpen- 
dicularly to  the  axis  of  the  body,  an  arrangement  very  unfavour- 
able to  locomotion  ;  most  reptiles  seem  to  creep  rather  than  walk, 
from  which  circumstance  they  derive  their. name. 

1.  What  is  Herpetology  ? 

2.  What  are  the  general  characters  of  those  animals  that  are  comprised 
in  the  Class  of  Reptiles? 

3.  What  class  of  animals  do  Reptiles  more  closely  resemble  in  their  general 
form  ?    What  is  the  position  of  their  extremities  ?   From  what  circumstance 
do  they  derive  their  name  ? 


22        SKELETON.— MOVEMENT. 

4.  The  skeleton  in  reptiles  is  composed  of  almost  the  same 
bones  as  those  we  have  already  seen  in  mammals  and  birds  r 
but  it  often  happens  that  some  among  them  are  entirely  wanting : 
serpents,  for  example,  have  no  extremities,  nor  have  they  any 
sternum ;  and  frogs  have  no  ribs. 

5.  The  head,  in  the  arrangement  of  its"  bones,  resembles  that 
of  birds  more  than  that  of  mammals ;  the  cranium  is  small ;  the 
fare  is  generally  much  elongated,  and  the  lower  jaw  is  suspended 
from  a  tympanic  bone,  which  is  placed  between  it  and  the  cranium. 
In  general,  the  head  is  articulated  with    the  vertebral   column 
by  a  single  tubercle  (or  condyle,)  which  has  many   facettes,  and 
possesses  only  very  slight  mobility. 

6.  The  structure  of  the  vertebral  column  differs  extremely  in 
the  different  reptiles :  in  serpents  it  is  very  long  and  very  flexi- 
ble ;  in  frogs  it  is  very  short  and  slightly  moveable ;  and  in  tor- 
toises its  middle  part  is  united  so  as  to  form  a  single  bony  piece. 

7.  Generally,  the  ribs  are  very  numerous ;  in  serpents,    they 
exist  through  almost  the  entire  length  of  the  body ;  the  same  is 
the  case  in  certain  reptiles  resembling  lizards,  while   in   others, 
these  bones  are  merely  rudimentary,  or  entirely  wanting.     In 
tortoises,  they  are  soldered,  as  it  were,  to  each  other ;  and  with  the 
dorsal  portion  of  the  vertebral  column,  form  the  great  shield  or 
buckler  which  covers  the  backs  of  these  animals,  and  which   is 
called  carapax. 

8.  Without  being  as  much  developed,  the  bones  of  the  shoulder 
are  very  analogous  to  those  of  birds.     The   anterior  extremity 
consists  of  an  arm  composed  of  a  single  bone,  the   humerus ;  a 
fore-arm  consisting  of  a  radius  and  ulna,  generally  distinct  from 
each  other,  and  a  hand  which  is  sometimes  in  the  form  of  a  fin, 
and  sometimes  resembling  a  foot. 

9.  The  movements  of  reptiles,  are,  in  general,  less  active,  and 
less  sustained  than  those  of  animals  with  warm  blood,  as  might 
be  anticipated  from  the  more  limited  character  of  their   respira- 
tion; for  there  always  exists  an  intimate  relation  between  these 
two  functions.     Their  muscles  receive  less  blood,  and  are   of  a 
whitish  tint;  and  it  is  also  remarked  that  these  organs  preserve  their 
irritability  for  a  longer  time  after  they  have  been  removed  from  the 
influence  of  the  nervous  system.'    In  warm-blooded  animals,  the 

4.  What  is  the  character  of  the  skeleton  in  Reptiles? 

5.  What  is  the  general  character  of  the  head  in  Reptiles  ? 

6.  Is  the  structure  of  the  vertebral  column  the  same  in  all  Reptiles  ? 

7.  What  is  the  character  of  the  ribs  in  Reptiles  ? 

8.  What  is  the  character  of  the  anterior  extremity  of  Reptiles? 

9.  Why  are  the  motions  of  Reptiles  less  active   than  those  of  mammals 
and  birds  ?     What  are  the  characters  of  the  muscles  of  Reptiles  ? 


NERVOUS  SYSTEM.  23 


destruction  of  the  brain  and  spinal  marrow,  or  the  section  of  a 
nerve  is  at  once  followed  by  a  complete  paralysis,  either  general 
or  local,  and,  very  soon  after  this  phenomenon  occurs,  it  becomes 
impossible  to  excite  muscular  contraction,  by  pricking  or  other- 
wise stimulating  the  affected  parts.  In  reptiles,  on  the  contrary, 
the  faculty  of  moving  under  the  influence  of  stimulation,  is  pre- 
served under  similar  circumstances,  for  a  very  long  time ;  for 
example,  the  tail  of  a  lizard  detached  from  the  body,  continues 
to  move  for  several  hours,  and  we  may  often  see  a  tortoise  that 
has  been  apparently  dead  for  several  days,  move  its  limbs  when 
the  muscles  are  stimulated  by  pricking  them.  We  may  conclude 
that,  in  these  animals,  the  division  of  the  physiological  labour  and 
localization  of  the  different  functions  of  the  nervous  system,  are 
not  carried  so  far  as  in  mammals  and  birds,  and  hence  there  is  a 
less  intimate  dependence  of  the  different  parts  of  the  economy 
upon  each  other. 

10.  The  encephalon  of  reptiles  is  but  little  developed  ;  the  sur- 
face of  the  brain  is  smooth  and  without  convolutions.     The  two 
hemispheres   are  oval,  more  or  less  elongated,   and  internally 
hollowed  by  a  single  ventricle.     The  spinal  marrow,   compared 
with  the  brain,  is  very  much  developed,  and  it  is  also  remarked 
that  the  nerves  are  larger,  proportionally  to  the  volume  of  the 
central  parts  of  the  nervous  system,  than  in  the  superior  animals. 

11.  Most  reptiles  have  no  special   organ   of  touch,  and  the 
nature  of  their  integuments  prevents  their  tactile  sensibility  from 
being  much  developed.  It  is  true,  that  in  some  of  them  the  skin  is 
entirely  naked,  and  the  epidermis  is  scarcely  distinct ;  but,  for  the 
most  part,  it  is  covered  by  a  thick  epidermic  layer,  composed  of 
horny  or  bony  plates  which  are  more  or  less  hard.     In   reptiles 
with  a  naked  skin,  and  an  epidermis  of  moderate  consistence,  it 
is  frequently  detached  and  renewed ;  and,  in  those  animals  where 
it  is  most  consistent,  it  becomes  detached,  at  different  seasons  of 
the  year,  to  give  place  to  a  new  epidermis ;  sometimes  this  kind 
of  moulting  is  partial,  or  at  least,  the  epidermis  only  falls  off  in 
flakes  ;  but  at  other  times  it  is  entirely  detached,  and   preserves 
the  form  of  the  animal  upon  which  it  grew.     Serpents  shed  their 
coats  in  this  way  several  times  in  the  course  of  the  year. 

12.  The  eyes  are  ordinarily  small,  but  in  their  structure,  are 
like  those  of  mammals  and  birds ;  but  there  is  rarely  found  in 
them  any  prolongation  or  fold  of  the  retina  resembling  thepccten. 

10.  What  is  the  general  character  of  the  Encephalon  ?     What  is  remark- 
able  in  the  nerves  of  Reptiles  ? 

11.  Have  Reptiles  an  organ  of  touch  ?     Is   the   epidermis  permanent   in 
Reptiles  ? 

12.  What  is  the  general  character    of  the  eyes  of  Reptiles?     Have  they 
any  eye  lids  ? 


24  ORGANS  OF  SENSE. 


The  orbits  are  incomplete,  and  generally  there  is  a  third  eye-lid 
which  is  semi-transparent,  and  moves  transversely. 

13.  The  structure  of  the  ear  is  less  complicated  than   in  the 
superior  animals.     The  external  ear  is  almost   always   entirely 
wanting ;  there  is  no  auditory  canal,  and  the  tympanum  is  on  a 
level  with  the  head  and  exposed,  or  concealed  beneath  the  skin. 
The  organ  of  smell  is  but  little  developed ;  the  nasal  fossae  are 
generally  very  small,  and  the   pituitary   membrane — the   lining 
membrane  of  the  nose — presents  few,  or  no  folds. 

14.  Most  reptiles  swallow  their  food  without  chewing  it,  and 
their  sense  of  taste  appears  to  be  very  dull.    The  tongue  is  some- 
times thick  and  fleshy  ;  but,  in  general,  it  is  thin,  dry,  very  pro- 
tractile, and  often  bifid  ;  it  sometimes  becomes  an  organ  of  pre- 
hension, the  play  of  which  is  very  remarkable. 

15.  Few  reptiles   live   exclusively    upon    vegetable    matter. 
Almost  all  of  them  are  carnivorous,  and,  with  some   exceptions, 
they  hunt  living  prey  which  they  generally  swallow  whole :  the 
selection  of  the  animals  upon  which  they  feed,  is,  in  a  measure, 
regulated  by  the  dimensions  of  their  mouth.     Most  of  them  drink 
but  little,  and  they  can  fast  for  a  very  long  time  without  incon- 
venience. 

16.  The  mouth  is  deeply  cleft,  and  generally  armed  with  teeth, 
which  are  sometimes  found  in  the  palate  as  well  as  in  the  jaws ; 
they  are  almost  always  of  a  conical  form,  and,   in  general,   in 
place  of  being  lodged  in  alveoli,  they  are  soldered,  as  it  were,  by 
their  base  to  the  bone  that  sustains  them.     In  some  reptiles  that 
are  without  teeth,  the  jaws  are  covered  by  a  horny  plate,  the 
edges  of  which  are  trenchant,  like  the  beak  of  a  bird  ;  but  they 
never  have  fleshy  and  moveable  lips  like  mammals. 

17.  Glandular   organs   in   considerable    numbers    ordinarily 
surround  the  mouth  of  reptiles,  and  pour  into  it  either  a   gluey 
humor  or  saliva ;  sometimes  there  are  also  glands,  very  closely 
resembling  salivary  glands,  which  secrete  a  violent  poison. 

18.  As  it  is  not  necessary  for  their   food  to  remain   in   the 
mouth  for  mastication,  a  veil  of  the  palate  would  have  been,   in 
general,  useless,  and,  in  fact  it  rarely  exists.     In   most   of  these 
animals,  the  pharynx  is  not  distinct  from  the  mouth,   and   often 

13.  Is  the  organ  of  hearing  the  same  in  Reptiles  as  it  is   in   mammals? 
••« Is  the  sense  of  smell  acute  or  otherwise  ? 

,*      14.  Have  Reptiles  a  strong  sense  of  taste  ?     What  is  the  character  of  the 
tongue  ? 

15.  Upon  what  do  Reptiles  generally  feed  ?     Do  they  drink  much  ? 

16.  What  is  the  form  of  the  teeth  of  Reptiles  ?     Where  are  they  situate  ? 
Do  they  exist  in  all  Reptiles  ? 

17.  What  is  the  character  of  the  glands  found  about  the  mouth  ? 

18.  Have  Reptiles  any  veil  of  the  palate  ?     What  is  the  character  of  tho 
pharynx  ?     What  are  the  general  characters  of  the  digestive  organs  ? 


CIRCULATION  OF  THE  BLOOD. 25 

there  is  not  a  well  defined  line  of  demarcation  between  the 
(Esophagus  and  stomach,  which  is  simple  and  various  in  form. 
The  intestines  are  short  and  without  a  ccecal  appendix  ;  the  large 
intestine  differs  little  from  the  small,  and  terminates  in  a  cloaca. 
The  liver  is  generally  voluminous,  and  there  is  a  gall  bladder, 
pancreas,  and  spleen. 

19.  The  blood  of  these  animals  is  red,  and  its  globules  are 
elliptical.  Their  volume  is  much  greater  than  in  mammals  and 
birds,  and  the  number  of  them  is  considerably  less.  The  dispo- 
sition of  the  circulatory  apparatus  varies;  but  there- is  always  a 
direct  communication  between  the  vascular  system  of  red 
(arterial)  blood,  and  the  vascular  system  of  black  (venous)  blood, 
so  that  these  two  liquids  mingle  with  each  other,  and  the  organs 
receive  only  blood,  imperfectly  arterialised  by  the  act  of  respiraton. 
The  heart  is  almost  always  composed  of  two  auricles,  (or/,  og,) 
which  empty  into  a  single  ventricle,  (r.) 
Therefore,  the  arterial  blood  coming  from 
the  lungs  and  received  in  the  left  auricle, 
(or/.)>  and  the  venous  blood  coming  from  *~^ 
different  parts  of  the  body  into  the  right 

auricle,  mingle  in  a  common  ventricle,  (r.)  |  'fffl^.^ Fig  1. 

One  part  of  this  mixture  returns  by  the 
aorta  to  the  different  organs  it  is  des- 
tined to  nourish,  and  another  goes  to 
the  lungs,  through  the  pulmonary  arte- 
ries (ay;,)  which  rise  immediately  from 
the  common  ventricle  or  from  the  aorta  itself.*  It  appears  that 
in  crocodiles,  the  heart  is  the  same  in  form  as  it  is  in  birds  and 
mammals,  and  a  partition  separates  the  right  ventricle  from  the 
left :  therefore  the  arterial  does  not  mingle  with  the  venous  blood ; 
but  there  is  a  particular  arrangement  of  the  arteries  which  effects 
this  mixture  at  a  short  distance  from  the  heart,  and  the  vessels 

*  Explanation  of  the  Figure. — Heart  and  principal  vessels  of  a  tortoise, — 
c,  ventricle, — od,  right  auricle,  which  receives  the  blood  from  the  great 
venous  trunk,  (re,)  and  pours  ft  into  the  ventricle,  (v) ; — Off,  left  auricle, 
which  receives  the  arterial  blood  coming  from  the  lungs  by  the  pulmonary 
veins,  (vp)  and  also  pours  it  into  the  ventricle; — ag,ad,  the  two  aortas  which 
arise  from  the  single  ventricle,  arid  which,  after  being  carried  backwards, 
unite  to  form  the  vertical  aorta,  (av) ; — oc,  branch  of  the  right  aorta  which 
furnishes  the  carotid,  brachial  arteries,  &c. — ap,  apt  the  two  pulmonary 
arteries,  the  common  trunk  of  which  arises  from  the  ventricle  along  side  of 
the  aortas.  The  arrows  indicate  the  course  of  the  blood. 

19.  What  is  the  colour  of  the  blood  in  Reptiles?     How  does  their  circu- 
lation differ  from  that  of  mammals  ?     What  is  the  course  of  the  circulation 
in  Reptiles? 
2 


26 RESPIRATION.— TEMPERATURE. 

of  all  the  posterior  half  of  the  body  only  receive  imperfectly 
arterialised  blood.  Until  lately,  it  was  believed  that,  in  other 
animals  of  this  class,  (the  Batrachians,)  there  was,  on  the  con- 
trary, but  a  single  ventricle,  but  it  has  been  demonstrated  to  be 
otherwise. 

20.  Respiration  is  carried  on  with   little  activity   in  reptiles ; 
most  of  these  animals  consume  but  little  oxygen,  and   can  be 
deprived   of  it  for  a  long  time  without  becoming  asphyxiate. 
Temperature  exerts  the  greatest  influence  over  this  function,  and 
in  the  warm  season,  the  necessity  of  breathing  is  more  vividly 
felt  than  in  winter.     A  frog,  for  example,  deprived  of  air  in  the 
summer,  perishes  in  less  than  two  hours ;  while  in  winter,  it  will 
continue  to  live  for  several  days.     In   some   reptiles,    there  are 
branchiae  (gills,)  during  the  early  period  of  life ;  but  the  lungs  are 
soon  developed,  and  then  the  branchiae  disappear,  so  that  the  same 
animal  has  at  first  an  aquatic,  and  afterwards  an  aerial  respira- 
tion :  there  are  some  even  that  preserve  these  organs  throughout 
life,  and  which,  having  lungs  at  the  same  time,   are  completely 
amphibious ;  but  most  reptiles  have  lungs  only.     We  must  not 
conclude  however,  that  their  respiration  is   exclusively  aerial ; 
for,  in  many  of  these  animals,  the  skin  is  also  a  respiratory  organ, 
and  can  act  on  the  air  dissolved  in  the  water  as  well  as  upon  the 
oxygen  of  the  atmosphere.     In  some  reptiles,  this  cutaneous  res- 
piration is  even  so  active  as  to  be,  under  certain  circumstances, 
sufficient  for  the  maintenance  of  life. 

21.  The  organization  of  the  lungs  is  not  favourable  to  great 
activity  of  respiration  ;  their  air  cells  are  very  large,  and  conse- 
quently the  vascular  surface  designed  for  contact  with  the  air, 
is  but  of  little  extent.     They  are  not  lodged  in  a  peculiar  cavity, 
the  thorax  not  being  separated  from  the  abdomen  by  a  diaphragm, 
and  the  air  is  renewed  in  them  with  less  facility  and  less  regu- 
larity than  in  the  superior  animals. 

22.  Reptiles  are  all  cold  blooded  animals,  that  is,  they  do  not 
produce  sufficient  heat  to  maintain  a  temperature  above  that  of 
the  atmosphere.     Their  whole  body  is  warmed  or  cooled  at  the 
same  time  with  the  surrounding  medium,  and   the   changes   of 
temperature  which  they  experience  powerfully  influences  all  their 
functions.     A  temperature  of  about  one  hundred,  to  one  hundred 
and  twenty  degrees  of  Farenheif  s  thermometer,  is  promptly  fatal 

20.  What  is  the  character  of  respiration  in  reptiles  ?  How  is  it  influenced 
by  different  temperatures  'f     Is  it  always  carried  on  by  the  means  of  Jungs. 

21.  How  do  the  lungs  differ  in  organization  and  situation  from  the  sarue 
organs  in  mammals? 

22.  Why  are  reptiles  called  cold  blooded  animals  ?     What  are  the  effects 
of  temperature  on  the  vital  phenomena  of  reptiles  ? 


DIVISION  OF  THE  CLASS  OF  REPTILES. 


27 


to  most  of  these  animals,  and  cold  tends  to  abase  all  vital  pheno- 
mena in  them.  In  winter  most  of  them  cannot  digest  substances 
taken  in  the  stomach,  and  they  do  not  take  food.  Their  respi- 
ration is  also  lowered  in  the  most  remarkable  manner.  A  frog, 
for  example,  which,  in  summer,  dies  from  asphyxia  in  less  than 
two  hours  by  the  complete  deprivation  of  atmospheric  air,  or 
even  by  strangulation,  can,  in  the  cold  season,  resist  asphyxia 
for  several  days,  and  live  for  many  months  without  taking  air 
into  the  lungs,  but  solely  by  the  assistance  of  cutaneous  respira- 
tion. Reduction  of  temperature  often  induces  in  reptiles,  a 
lethargic  state,  analogous  to  that  of  hibernating  animals. 

23.  Except  the  production  of  poison  in  certain  serpents,   the 
secretions  of  this  class  of  animals  are  not  particularly  remarkable. 

24.  Having  no  means  of  suckling  their  young,  reptiles  are  re- 
produced like  birds,  by  the  means  of  eggs.     In  some  instances,  the 
eggs  are  hatched  before  they  are  laid,  and  the  animals  in  which 
this  phenomenon  takes  place,  are  said  to  be  ovoviviparous. 

25.  This  Class  is  composed  of  four   great   natural  divisions, 
namely  :   1st.  The  Tortoises  ;  2d.  the  Lizards,  and  other  reptiles 
resembling  them  in  organization;  3d.   the  Serpents ;    and   4th. 
the  Frogs  and  other  reptiles  of  analogous    structure.     These 
four  Orders  are  designated  under  the  names  of  Chelonia,  Sauria, 
Ophidia,  and  Batrachia.     The  principal  characters  which  distin- 
guish them  may  be  seen  in  the  following  table  : 

(Orders.) 


r      Covered   by   a  ~\ 

. 

carapax.     (Jaws 

without  teeth,  and  >  CHELONIA. 

No  metamorpho- 
sis.  Respiration  al- 
ways  aerial.  Bran- 
chiae never.     Body 
covered    by  scales, 

Having 
extremities  ; 
moveable 
eyelids. 

furnished  with  a 
horny  envelope.)  J 

Without  cara-  "1 
pax.  (Jaws  armed  j 

rings,  or  a  carapax. 

with   teeth,    and  >•  SAURIA. 

without  a  horny 

i 

.  envelope.)              J 

Without  extremities;  generally  )    n 
.  without  moveable  eyelids  ;  teeth.  {   L 

More  or  less  transformation  in  early  life ;  respiration  ~| 
at  first  aquatic,  and  effected  by  the  aid  of  branchiae,  then  I    g       ACHIA 
w    j   aerial  and  pulmonary.   Skin  naked,  without  carapax  or  j 
l_  scales  ;  no  nails;  almost  always  having  extremities.        J 

23.  Are  the  secretions  of  Reptiles  remarkable  in  any  particular  ? 

24.  By  what  means  are  Reptiles  re-produced  ? 

25.  Into   how  many  orders  is  tho  class  of  Reptiles  divided  ?     How  are 
these  orders  designated'/ 


28  TORTOISES. 


LESSON    II. 

ORDER  OF  CHELONIANS,  or  TORTOISES. — Organization. —  Division 
into  four  Families. — Land  Tortoises. — Fresh  water  Tortoises. 
—  River  Tortoises. — Sea  Tortoises. —  Tortoise  Shell:  its  use. 

ORDER     OF     CHELONIA. 

Fig.  2.  ii  Fig.  3. 


GREEK    TORTOISE. 

1.  Tortoises  are  recognised  at  first  sight  by  the  curious  defen- 
sive armour   with  which  nature  has  provided  them.     A  double 
shield  envelopes  all  parts  of  their  body,  except  the  head  and  neck, 
the  four  paws  and  tail,  which  in  general,  may  be  also  concealed 
in  this  species  of  solid  box. 

2.  When  studying  the  mammalia,  we  mentioned  some  animals 
that  have  the  body  protected  by  a  sort  of  shell.     The  Armadillo 
furnished  an  example ;  but  that  armour,  formed  only  of  aggluti- 
nated hair,  or  by  a  particular  modification  of  the  epidermic  layers 
of  the  skin,  in  no  wise  resembles  the  double  shield  of  the    Tor- 
toises; for  the  latter  is  composed  of  bones,  which  are  widened, 
and  intimately  united  to  each  other ;  the  carapax,  (2.)  or  upper 
shell  is  formed  by  the  union  of  the  ribs  and  dorsal  vertebra? ;  the 
plastrum,   (3.)   or  lower  shell,  is   the  sternum.     Consequently, 
these  organs  are  a  portion  of  the  skeleton  which,  instead  of  being 
lodged  in  the  substance  of  the  soft  parts,  has  become  superficial, 
and  is  only  covered  by  a  thin,  dry  skin. 

3.  The  bony  frame  of  tottoises,  to  present  this  unusual  dispo- 
sition, must  be,  of  course,  extremely  modified :  still,  we  find  in 

1.  What  is  the  most  striking  featbre  of  Tortoises  ? 

2.  What  is  the  essential  constitution  of  the  upper,  and  of  the  lower  sheil 
of  Tortoises? 

3.  How  does  the  skeleton  of  a  Tortoise  differ  from  that  of  a  mammal  ? 


STRUCTURE  OF  TORTOISES. 29 

it,  the  same  pieces  which  compose  the  skeleton  of  the  higher 
vertebrate  animals;  except  that  many  of  these  pieces  are 
changed  in  form  and  size. 

4.  When  we  examine  the  carapax  of  a  Tortoise,  (Fig.  4,) 
we  see   that  it  is  formed  of  a  considerable  number  of  bony 
plates,  united  to  each  other  by  sutures,  and  that 

eight  of  these  plates  occupy  the  middle  line,  on 
each  side  of  which,  sixteen  form  a  longitudinal 
row,  and  twenty-five  or  twenty-six  surround 
the  whole,  like  an  oval  frame  It  is  then  difficult' 
to  recognise  the  nature  of  these  bones ;  but, 
if  we  examine  the  carapax  on  its  inferior  sur- 
face, -we  at  once  see  (Plate  l,Jig.  3.;  that  the 
middle  pieces  are  simply  dependencies  of  the 
dorsal  verted,  (vd.)  In  fact,  we  find  be- 
neath it,  the  body  of  each  one  of  these  bones  of 
its  ordinary  form,  as  well  as  the  vertebral  canal'' 
for  the  lodgement  of  the  spinal  marrow ;  but  the  superior  portion 
of  the  parietes  of  the  ring,  which  constitutes  this  canal,  instead  of 
having,  as  is  usual,  the  form  of  a  transverse  bony  band,  separated 
by  a  space  from  its  fellows,  and  being  surmounted  by  a  spinous 
process,  is  here  widened  like  a  disk,  and  without  any  interrup- 
tion is  continuous  with  the  analogous  plates  belonging  to  the 
vertebra  which  precedes,  and  that  which  follows  it.  Each  of 
these  dorsal  vertebrae,  in  this  way  rendered  immoveable,  sustain 
a  pair  of  ribs  as  in  man,  and  other  vertebrata ;  but  these  ribs 
are  widened  so  as  to  touch  each  other  throughout,  or  nearly 
throughout  their  whole  length,  and  join  each  other  by  sutures  (<•.) ; 
the  marginal  pieces,  which  articulate  with  the  extremity  of  the 
ribs,  and  in  a  degree  surround  the  carapax,  evidently  represent 
the  sternal  portion  of  these  bones,  which,  in  mammals,  remain 
always  in  a  cartilaginous  state ;  but  in  birds,  they  are  completely 
ossified.  They  also  remain  cartilaginous  in  some  Tortoises,  and 
many  of  them  laterally  support  themselves  by  the  edges  of  the 
sternal  plastrum. 

5.  The   sternum    of  Tortoises   presents    an    extraordinary 
developement ;    it  extends  Irom  the  base  of  the  neck   to    the 
origin   of  the   tail,   and  covers   the   whole  inferior   surface   ot 
the  body,  (Fig.   5.)     The  pieces  which  enter  into   its   compo- 
sition,  are   nine  in   number,   and,  instead   of  being   placed    in 
a   row    as   in   mammals,   with  a    single    exception,    they   are 
arranged  in  pairs,  and  soldered  or  articulated  with  each   other, 

4.  What  is  the  Carapax  ?     How  is  it  formed? 

5.  What  is  the  Plastrum  ?     How  is  it  constituted  ? 

2* 


30 STRUCTURE  OF  TORTOISES, 

^^  so  as  to  form   a  great    oval    plate.     Some- 

Fig.  5.  jjJE|  times  this  shield  is  entire,  and  solid  through- 

out its  whole  extent,  sometimes  it  is  divided 
into  three  portions,  the  anterior  and  posterior 
of  which  are  slightly  moveable,  and  other 
times  it  is  hollowed  in  the  centre  like  a  frame ; 
and,  it  is  fixed  on  each  side  to  the  carapax, 
either  by  a  broad  bony  prolongation,  or  by 
cartilages,  and  it  is  through  a  sort  of  slit,  or 
opening  left  betwixt  these  two  shields  or  shells, 
in  front  and  behind  this  articulation,  that  the 
'head,  extremities,  and  tail,  are  protruded. 

6.  The  carapax  and  plastrum  are  only  covered   by  the  ordi- 
nary skin  of  this  animal  which  is  ordinarily  scaly.     No    muscle 
is  inserted  into  their  surface,  and  consequently  the  muscles  of  the 
neck  and  extremities  are  attached  to  the  interior    of  the  trunk. 
The  shoulder,  instead  of  being  sustained  by  the  external  parietes 
of  the  thorax,  is  lodged  in  the  interior  of  this  cavity ;  and  the 
pelvis,  so  to  speak,  is  contained  in  the  cavity  of  the  abdomen ; 
and  the  marginal  pieces  of  the  carapax  are  advanced  beyond  the 
base  of  the  neck  and  tail,  so  that  these  parts  seem  to  project  from 
the  same  cavities. 

7.  The  cervical  vertebrae,  (vc.)  far  from  being  immoveable  as 
they  are  in  the  back,  are  so  articulated  with  each  other  as  to 
permit,  in  general,  of  extended  movements,  similar  to  those   of 
the  neck  of  a  bird.     Their  number  is  ordinarily  eight,  and  their 
articular  surfaces  are  alternately  convex  and  concave,  instead  of 
being  plain  as  in  mammals.     In  some  tortoises  the   neck  is   not 
retractile ;  in  others,  it  can  be  completely    folded   beneath   the 
carapax,  either  by  bending  downwards  on  itself,  or  to  one  side. 

8.  The  head  of  Tortoises  is  small  compared  with  the   body, 
and  the  cranium  is  small  compared  with  the   head.     Generally, 
it  is  flattened,  and  widened  posteriorly  by  large  temporal    fossae, 
which  are  ordinarily  concealed  beneath  a  bony  arch.     The  upper 
jaw  is  solidly  fixed  to  the  cranium,  and  is  entirely  immoveable. 
The  square,  or  tympanic  bone,  which  supports  the  lower  jaw,  is 
articulated,  in  the  same  manner  to  the  adjoining  bones,  and  forms 
the  larger  part  of  the  vicinity  of  the  frame    of  the   tympanum ; 
the  lower  jaw  is  composed  of  a  great  number  of  bony   pieces  : 
there  are  six  on  each  side. 

6.  Are  there  any  muscular  attachments  on  the  external   surfaces   of  the 
carapax  and  plastrum  ?  Is  the  shoulder  on  the  inside  or  outside  of  the  chest? 

7.  Do  the  cervical  vertebrae  move  freely  on  each  other  or  not  ?     What  is 
their  usual  number  ? 

8.  Is  the  upper  jaw  of  Tortoises  moveable  ?    How  is  the  lower  jaw  articu- 
lated with  the  skull  'f    Does  the  lower  jaw  consist  of  a  single  bone  or  more  ? 


STURCTURE  OF  TORTOISES. 


31 


Fig.  6. 


9.  The  bones  of  the  shoulder  (o.)  articulate  on  one  side  with 
the  vertebral  column,  and  with  the  sternum  on  the  other,  so  as 
to  form  a  sort  of  ring  betwixt  the  carapax  and  plastrum,  through 
which  pass  the  oesophagus  and 
trachea.*  We  here  observe 
three  branches,  which  often 
unite  solidly  with  each  other 
at  an  early  age,  and  which 
converge  and  form  by  their 
union,  the  articular  cavity  of 
the  humerus.  One  of  these 
bones,  (o.)  suspended  to  the 
vertebral  column,  is  evidently 
the  scapula ;  the  second,  which 
is  directed  backwards,  is  ana- 
logous to  the  coracoid  bone  of  cs 
birds,  and  the  third,  which 
descends  to  join  the  plastrum, 
is  the  representative  of  the 
clavicle,  or  at  least,  the  acro- 
mion  process  of  the  scapula, 
with  which  this  bone  ordi- 
narily articulates. 


10.  The  pelvis  (b.)  resembles  the  ring  formed  by  the   bones 
of  the  shoulder. 

1 1.  The  extremities  are  not  very  remarkable  in  the  disposition 
of  their  bony  frame.     They  are  always  short ;  sometimes   they 
are  truncated  at  the  end,  and  at  others  flattened  and    elongated 
into  a  paddle ;  and  in  all,  the  fingers  are  only  slightly  moveable, 
and  in  general,  they  are  not  very  distinct  externally. 

12.  The  skin  that  covers  the  body  of  these  animals  sometimes 
preserves  its  softness,  and  is  not  covered  by  scales ;  but  in  almost 
all  of  them,  it  is  furnished  with  a  horny  layer,  of  very  great  con- 
sistence.    These  scales   form  large  plates  on  the  carapax  and 
plastrum,  the  arrangement  and  aspect  of  which  vary    according 
to  the  species ;  those  which  cover  the  carapax  of  a   species  of 

^Explanation  of  the  Figure.— Skeleton  of  a  Tortoise.  (The  sternal  plas- 
trum removed  to  show  the  interior  of  the  thorax) : — t,  the  head, — we,  cervical 
vertebrae, — vd,  dorsal  vertebrae, — c,  the  ribs,  anchylosed  with  the  dorsal  ver- 
tebrae to  form  the  carapax, — cs,  sternal  portion  of  the  ribs,  or  marginal  pieces 
of  the  carapax, — o,  scapula, — c/,  clavicle, — co,  coracoid  bone, — 6,  pelvis, — 
/,  femur, — <t,  tibia, — p,  fibula. — </,  caudal  vertebras. 

9.  What  is  the  peculiarity  of  the  connexion  of  the  bones  of  the  shoulder 
with  the  vertebral  column  ? 

10.  What  is  the  arrangement  of  the  bones  of  the  pelvis? 

11.  What  is  the  general  character  of  the  extremities  1 

12.  What  is  Tortoise  shell  ? 


32 


STRUCTURE  OF  TORTOISES. 


Sea  Tortoise,  are  remarkably  beautiful,  and  are  employed  in  the 
arts  under  the  name  of  Tortoise  shell. 

13.  The  eyes  of  Tortoises  are  protected  by  three  lids  like  those 
of  birds.     The  tympanum  is  large,  but  ordinarily  concealed  be- 
neath the  skin,  and  the  nostrils  are  pierced  through  the  extremity 
of  the  muzzle. 

14.  As  we  have  already  stated,  these  animals  are  unprovided 
with  teeth,  and  their  jaws  are  furnished  with  a  horny   envelope, 
with  cutting  edges,  like  those  of  birds.     Some  live   on  marine 
plants,  and  others  on  small  animals  as  well  as  vegetables.    They 
require  little  nourishment,  and  they  have  been  known   to   pass 
months,  and  even  years  without  eating. 

15.  The  elevator  muscles  of  the  jaw  are  very  powerful,  and 
when  a  Tortoise  has  seized  hold  of  any  thing  in  the  mouth,  it  is 
almost  impossible  to  get  it  away.     The  tongue  is   more  compli- 
cated in  its  structure  than  that  of  most  Reptiles  :  it  is  thick,  and 
studded  with  tiliform  papilla?.     The  stomach  does  not  seem    to 
differ  from  the  neighbouring  parts  of  the  digestive  tube,    except 
that  it  is  rather  larger  ;  the  intestine  is   of  moderate  length,  and 
has  no  ccecum  ;  the  liver  is  voluminous. 

16.  The  lungs  are  very  large,  and  lodged  in  the  same   cavity 

with  the  other  viscera,*  (Fig.  7.)  The 
mechanism  by  which  the  air  enters  them 
is  entirely  different  from  that  of  other 
animals  in  which  the  thorax  is  dilatable. 
The  parietes  of  this  cavity  being  im  move- 
able  in  most  Tortoises,  the  air  is  forced 
into  these  organs  by  the  action  of  the 
mouth.  The  jaws  being  closed,  the  animal 
lowers  the  hyoid  bone,  which  enlarges  the 


Fig.  7. 


cavity  of  the  mouth,  and  the  air  having 
entered  through  the  nostrils,  the  posterior 
nares  are  closed,  and  then  raising  the  hyoid 
bone,  as  if  to  swallow,  the  air  thus  in- 
closed, is  forced  to  descend  through  the 
trachea.  Therefore,  the  animal  breathes 
by  a  sort  of  deglutition. 


*  Explanation  of  the  Figure. — Viscera  of  a  Tortoise — m,  the  jaws, — A, 
the  hyoid  bone, — o,  the  oesophagus, — t,  the  trachea, — />,  p,  the  lungs, — c,  the 
heart  and  principal  vessels, — /,  the  liver, — i,  the  intestines, — cl,  the  cloaca, — 
ov,  the  ovaries, — ca,  c«,  the  carapax. 

13.  Have  Tortoises  any  eye-lids  ?     What   is   the  character  of   the  ear  ? 
Where  are  the  nostrils  situate  ? 

14.  Upon  what  do  Tortoises  feed  ? 

15.  What  is  peculiar  in  the  tongue  of  Tortoises  ?     What  is  the  character 
of  the  stomach  and  intestines  ? 

16.  How  do  Tortoises  breathe  ? 


LAND  TORTOISES.  33 


17.  Tortoises  lay  eggs  with  a  hard  shell,  which  they    deposit 
in  the  sand  or  earth,  in  some  situation  exposed   to  the    sun,   to 
cause  them  to  be  hatched.     The  males  are  generally  smaller  than 
the  females,  and  are  ordinarily  recognised  by  the  plastrum  which 
is  slightly  concave.     The  duration  of  life  in  these  animals  is  very 
great :  authentic  instances  are  known  of  land  Tortoises  that  have 
lived  a  hundred  and  twenty  years,  even  two  hundred  years,  and 
some  cases  of  a  still  greater  age  are  related. 

18.  The  habits  af  these  animals  vary,  and    these   differences, 
which  coincide  with  the  modifications   of  their   structure,   has 
caused  them  to  be  divided  into  four   principal  families.     Their 
chief  characters  may  be  seen  in  the  following  table: 

(Families.) 

f  largo,    truncate    at    the    end,   and    formed    for  "1 
walking  only,  and  having  the  toes  united  in  a   }•  LAND  TORTOISES. 
common  mass  as  far  as  the  nails. 

(incomplete.        Cara-  ") 
pax    furnished     with   V  POND  TORTOISES. 
scales.  j 

complete.       Carapax 


covered  by  a  soft  skin 


M 


RIVER  TORTOISES. 


flattened,     in    the   form    of   large    swimming 

paddles,   and  not   having  the    toes    externally   }-  SEA  TORTOISES. 

distinct. 


19.  The  LAND  TORTOISES, —  Teshido,— ( Plate  I,  fig.  1,  and  2.) 
have  feet  formed  for  walking  only ;  their  legs  are,  as  it  were, 
truncate,  and  their  toes  are  short,  and  united  to  the  nails ;  their 
number  is  five  in  front,  and  four  behind.  The  carapax  is  very 
much  vaulted,  and  they  can  draw  the  head,  tail,  and  extremities, 
completely  within  their  shell.  They  live  in  the  woods,  or  in 
places  well  furnished  with  herbage :  they  never  go  into  the  water, 
but  often  inhabit  its  neighborhood.  Most  of  them  feed  chiefly  on 
vegetables,  and  terrestrial  mollusks.  They  make  a  kind  of  bur- 
row, and  in  temperate  climates  pass  the  winter  in  a  state  of 
hibernation.  Their  eggs  are  generally  spherical  and  furnished 
with  a  hard  shell ;  the  female  deposites  her  eggs  in  a  hole,  and 
seems  to  take  no  care  of  her  young.  The  most  common  Euro- 
pean species  is  the  Greek  Tortoise, —  Testudo  grceca, — which  is 

17.  By  what  agency  are  the  eggs  of  Tortoises  hatched  ?     How  does  the 
male  differ  from  the  female?     What  is  the  duration  of  life  in  Tortoises  ? 

18.  How  is  the  order  of  Tortoises  divided? 

19.  How  is  the  family  of  Land  Tortoises  charade- ised  ?     What  are  the 
habits  of  Land  Tortoises  ?     Where  is  the  Greek  Tortoise  found  ? 


34 FRESH  WATER  TORTOISES. ^ 

yellow,  spotted  with  black,  and  about  six  inches  long;  it  inhabits 
Greece,  Italy,  France,  and  the  large  Islands  of  the  Mediterranean. 
In  Italy,  and  Sicily,  this  species  is  eaten. 

20.  THE  FAMILY  OF  POND  TORTOISES,  (or  Fresh  Water   Tor- 
toises,— Emys.) — much  more  numerous  than  the  preceding,  forms 
a  sort  of  connecting  link  between  the  Land  Tortoises,  and  those 
that  are  essentially  aquatic ;  it  is  composed  of  Chelonians  that 
commonly  live  in  marshes,  and  can  swim,  but  yet  differ   very 
little  from  the  preceding  in  their  organization.     They  are  chiefly 
distinguished  by  the  conformation  of  their  paws.     The  toes,  five 
in  number,  are  distinct,  moveable,  furnished  with  hooked    nails, 
and  united  at  their  base  by  a  palmate  membrane  of  greater   or 
less  extent ;  but  these  characters  are  not  always  clearly  marked. 

21.  As  in  the  Land  Tortoises,  the   carapax   is,   in   general, 
entirely  solid  and  oval  in  form  ;  but  instead  of  being  elevated,  it 
is  more  or  less  depressed.     The  neck  is  almost  always   longer 
than  in  the  preceding,  and  presents  remarkable  variations  in  its 
conformation.     In  some,  it  is  cylindrical,  and  surrounded  by  a 
loose  skin  which  permits  it  to  be  entirely  drawn  within,   and  at 
the  middle  part  of  the  carapax,    while   in   others,   it  is  a  little 
flattened,  and  covered  by  a  close  cutaneous  sheath,  which  adheres 
to  the  muscles,  so  that  it  can  only  be  folded  laterally  on  the  body. 
Almost  all  of  them  can  conceal  their  paws  between  their  shells,  and 
like   the  preceding,  they  have  but  four  nails  on  the  hind  feet. 
Their  motions  are^not  as  slow  as  those  of  the   Land   Tortoises, 
and  they  swim  with  considerable  facility.     Their  chief  food  con- 
sists of  fluviatile  mollusks,  batrachians,  and  annelides :  they  are 
found  on  the  margins  of  lakes,  marshes,  and  rivulets,   in   which 
the  current  is  not  rapid. 

22.  The  genus  of  Cistudes  belongs  to  the   division   of  fresh 
water  Tortoises,  with  a  retractile  neck :  it  is  distinguished  by  the 
sternum  which  is  furnished  with  twelve  plates,  and  divided  into 
two  nearly  equal  parts,  both  moveable,  and  by   the   short   tail. 
The  European  Cistude,  or  Mud  Tortoise, —  Tcstudo  europceo, — 
has  a  depressed  carapax,  tolerably  smooth,  blackish  with  yellow 
points,  and  about  six  inches  long.     It   inhabits  stagnant  waters, 
at  the  bottom  of  which  it  loves  to  keep  buried  in  the  mud.     On 
the  approach  of  the  cold  season,  it  retires  into  holes,  to  hibernate. 
It  is  found  in  the  south  of  France ;  but  it  is  particularly  common 

20.  What  are  Pond  Tortoises  ?     How  are  they  distinguished  from  Land 
Tortoises  ? 

21.  What  are  the  characters  of  the  Pond  Tortoises?     Where  are   they 
found  ? 

22.  What  are  the  characters  of  the  European  Cistude  ? 


SOFT-SHELLED  TORTOISES. 35 

in  Greece  and  Italy.     Its  flesh  is  used  as  food,  and  it   is  reared 
for  that  purpose,  with  bread,  young  vegetables,  &c. 

23.  Some  fresh  water  Tortoises  have   the  sternal   plastrum 
divided  into  two  flaps,  which  they  can  at  will,  by  a  moveable 
articulation,  close  against  the  carapax,  when  their  head  and  ex- 
tremities are  drawn  in,  so  as  to  inclose  themselves  in  a  box ;  this 
peculiarity  has  obtained  for  them  the  name  of  Box-tortoises. 

24.  There  are  some  fresh  water  Tortoises,  on  the  contrary, 
that  cannot  enclose  themselves  within  the  shell.     Amongst  these 
is  the  Snapper, —  Testudo  serpentina, — which  is  readily  distin- 
guished by  its  long  tail,  which  is  studded  with  sharp   crests.    It 
is  found  in  the  warm  parts  of  the  United  States. 

25.  The  FAMILY  OF  RIVER  TORTOISES,  (or  Soft-Shelled  Tor- 
toises,)— Trionyx,— differ  from  all  the  preceding  in  the  conforma- 
tion of  their  paws,  which  are  designed  for  swimming,  but  are 
entirely  unsuited  for  walking.  The  paws  are  very*much  depressed, 
and  the  toes,  although  very  distinct,  and  more  or  less  moveable, 
are  joined  as  far  as  the  nails  by  broad  flexible  membranes.    The 
carapax  is  very  much  spread  out,  and  almost  flat,  unprovided  with 
scales,  covered  only  by  a  skin  which  is  soft,  and  entirely  cartila- 
ginous throughout  its  border,  which  structure  has  obtained  for 
them  the  name  of  Soft-skelled  7Jortoises;  the  neck  is  generally 
elongated  and  protractile ;  the  nostrils  are  prolonged  into  a  sort 
of  little  trunk ;  the  jaws  are  trenchant,  and  furnished  with  a  fold 
of  skin,  which  resembles  lips ;  the  limbs  are  short,  and  supplied 
with  only  three  toes.     To  these  external  characters   are  added 
other  anatomical  peculiarities ;  for  example,  the  carapax  has  no 
marginal  pieces,  and  the  sternal  plastrum  is  not  ossified  in   the 
middle. 

26.  These  animals   are  essentially  aquatic,  and  inhabit    the 
rivers  and  lakes  of  the  warmest  regions  of  the  globe :  they  swirn 
with  great  ease,  and  remain  on  land  only  at  night ;  they  are  very 
voracious,  and  feed  chiefly  on  reptiles  and  rishes. 

27.  The  Nile  supports  one  species  of  these  Tortoises,  which 
is  useful  to  Egypt  by  devouring  a  great  number  of  young  croco- 
diles the  moment  they  are  hatched;  it  is  the  Tyrse, —  Trionyx 
cegyptiactis, — of  Zoologists.     Another  species,  which  inhabits  the 
rivers  of  South  America,  is  remarkable  for  its  ferocity,  and    for 
the  delicacy  of  its  flesh. 

23.  What  are  Box -Tortoises  ? 

24.  What  is  the  Snapper  ? 

25.  What  are  the  characters  of  the  Sofl-Shelled  Tortoises  ? 

26.  What  are  their  habits? 

27.  What  is  the  Tyrse  ? 


36  SEA  TORTOISES. 


23.  The  FAMILY  OF  SEA  TORTOISES, — (Turtle)—  Ckelonia. — 
The  Tortoises  that  live  in  the  sea,  differ  from  all  others,  both  in 
their  conformation  and  habits.  Their  flattened  paws,  which  are 

really  paddles,  are  only  suited  for 
Fig.  8.  swimming,  and  their  toes,  which 
are  closely  pressed  together,  and 
enveloped  in  the  same  membrane, 
are  entirely  immoveable.  Only  the 
two  first  toes  of  each  foot  have 
nails,  and  these  fall  off  at  a  certain 
time ;  and  the  anterior  extremities, 
in  place  of  being  of  nearly  the  same 
length  as  the  posterior,  are  more 
than  twice  as  long.  The  carapax 
is  arched  and  cordiform  ;  and  near 
the  edge  of  this  shell,  the  ribs  are 
not  widened  and  soldered  together, 
and,  as  in  the  preceding  family,  the 
sternum  is  in  the  form  of  a  frame  open  in  the  centre.  The 
nostrils  are  not  prolonged  into  a  trunk,  but  are  surmounted  by 
a  fleshy  mass,  which  acts  like  a  valve,  in  closing  these  openings 
when  the  animal  puts  its  head  under  water.  The  edges  of  the 
beak  are  very  trenchant,  and  the  upper  mandible  is  hooked. 

29.  These  tortoises  feed  principally  on  marine  plants,  and  only 
leave  the  water  in  the  laying  season:  they  swim  with  great 
facility,  and  they  are  sometimes  met  several  hundred  leagues  from 
land,  floating  on  the  surface  of  the  sea  :  they  appear  to  be  able  to 
sleep  in  this  way,  and  they  also  dive  very  well.  At  the  laying 
season,  they  leave  their  habitual  haunts  and  resort  to  the  shores 
of  some  desert  island,  to  deposit  their  eggs  in  holes  which  they 
dig  upon  the  beach.  During  the  night  the  females  leave  the  water 
for  the  purpose  of  laying;  they  drag  themselves  on  the  beach 
beyond  the  line  of  high  tide,  and  with  their  anterior  extremities 
excavate  a  hole  about  two  feet  deep  in  which  they  deposit  their 
eggs  in  regular  ranges,  and  cover  them  with  sand,  which  they 
level  off  so  carefully  as  to  leave  scarcely  a  trace  of  their  labour. 
The  operation  over,  they  return  immediately  to  the  sea.  The 
number  of  eggs  is  very  considerable;  sometimes  as  many  as  two 
hundred,  and  the  laying  is  repeated  two  or  three  times  a  year. 
After  exposure  to  the  sun  for  fifteen  or  twenty  days,  they  burst, 
and  the  young,  which  are  not  yet  provided  with  shell,  imme- 
diately make  for  the  sea.  Generally,  they  find  difficulty  at  first 

28.  What  are  the  characters  of  Sea  Tortoises  ? 
2S).  What  are  their  habits  ? 


MARINE  TORTOISES. 37 

in  plunging  into  it,  and,  before  reaching  it,  they  often  become  the 
prey  of  carnivorous  birds,  which  seem  to  await  the  moment  of 
their  birth  to  feast  upon  them.  They  have  also  to  dread  vora- 
cious fishes  and  crocodiles,  which  assemble  in  the  same  places  for 
the  same  purposes ;  the  most  part  of  those  which  escape  their 
numerous  enemies,  acquire  very  considerable  dimensions:  they 
have  been  known  to  measure  fifteen  feet  in  circumference,  and  to 
weigh  from  five  to  six  hundred  pounds. 

30.  Marine  tortoises  are  found  in  all  warm  seas;  they  abound 
about  the  West  Indies,  and  particularly  about  a  small  archipelago 
near  the  main,  known  under  the  name  of  Tortugas. 

3 1 .  Among  these  Tortoises,  we  distinguish  the  CHELONIA,  in 
which  the  carapax  is  covered  with  horny  plates  or  scales,  and  the 
SPHARGIS,  which  have  only  a  coriaceous  skin.    The  most  common 
species   of  the   first   of  these  genera,  are  the  Green   Tortoise, 
(Turtle);  the  Caret,  or  Hawks-bill  Turtle;  and  the  Caouane.  Only 
one  species  of  Sphargis  is  known,  the  Luth. 

32.  The  Green  Tortoise,  —  Testudo  viridis, — is   recognised 
by  the  plates,  thirteen  in   number,  and  not  arranged  like  tiles, 
that   cover  the    disk   of  the  carapax,  which   is   fawn    colour, 
with  a  number  of  brown  spots,  glazed  green.     It  is  found  in  the 
Atlantic  ocean,  and  feeds  chiefly  on  a  plant  known  to  botanists 
under  the  name  of  zostera  marina, :  it  lays  twice  a  year,  about  the 
months  of  May  and  June,  and  the  total  number   of  its   eggs   is 
about  two  hundred  and  fifty.     Its  length  is  sometimes  from  six 
to  seven  feet,  and  its  weight  from  seven  to  eight  hundred  pounds. 
This  species  differs  very   little   from  other   marine   Tortoises, 
frequenting  the  same  places,  and  is  found  on  the  coasts  of  Africa, 
and  in  the  Asiatic  seas.     The  flesh  of  all  these  Chelonians  is  very 
much' esteemed.     In  England  particularly  it  is  very  much  sought 
as  a  luxurious  dish,  and  to  supply  the  London  market,  vessels 
are  despatched  to  the  Indian  seas,  and  on  certain   coasts  parks 
have  been  established  for  the  preservation  of  Sea  Tortoises.  The 
fat  of  these  animals,  although  of  a  greenish  hue,  which  may  be 
at  first  unpleasant,  has  a  very  delicate  taste,  and  their  eggs  are 
equally  esteemed. 

33.  The  Caouane, —  Testudo  caretta, — as  in  the  Green  Tortoise, 
the  carapax  is  covered  by  plates  simply  placed  together,  but  the 
number  of  these  scales  on  the  disk  is  fifteen  instead  of  thirteen. 

30.  Where  are  marine  Tortoises  found  ? 

31.  How  are  Sou  Tortoises  classified  ? 

32.  What  are  the  characters  of  Green  Tortoises  ?     Upon    what    do  they 
feed? 

33.  What  is  the  Caouane? 

3 


33 


MARINE  TORTOISES. 


The  head  is  also  larger,  and  its  colour  is  brown  or  deep  chestnut. 
It  inhabits  the  Mediterranean,  as  well  as  the  Atlantic  ocean  ;  it 
does  not  attain  the  same  size  as  the  preceding.  Its  length  is  about 
four  feet,  and  its  weight  from  three  to  four  hundred  pounds.  It 
is  very  voracious  ;  its  food  consists  chiefly  of  mollusks,  and  its 
flesh  is  not  good.  Its  fat  is  burned  for  light. 

Fig.  9.  34.  The  Hawks-bill  Turtle— (the 

Caret) —  Tcstudo  imbricata, — ( Fig. 
9.)  is  the  most'  interesting  species 
of  this  genus ;  because  it  furnishes 
the  tortoise  shell.  It  is  readily  dis- 
tinguished by  the  arrangement  of 
the  horny  plates  of  its  carapax, 
which,  in  place  of  being  simply 
joined  together,  are  extended  back- 
wards, one  over  the  other  like  the 
tiles  or  shingles  of  a  roof;  we  count 
fifteen  on  the  disk ;  the  colour  is  yel- 
lowish marble  with  a  deep  brown. 
The  jaws  are  strong,  elongated  and 
curved  towards  the  extremity,  but 
without  teeth  on  the  edges ;  the  ex- 
tremities or  fins,  like  those  of  the  caouane,  are  provided  with  two 
nails,  while  in  the  Green  Tortoise  there  is  but  one.  Its  size 
scarcely  exceeds  one  third  of  that  of  the  last  named  Chelonian ;  it 
feeds  chiefly  on  marine  plants,  but  also  eats  Crustacea,  mollusca, 
and  small  fishes.  It  is  met  in  the  Indian  ocean  as  well  as  in  the 
American  seas,  and,  in  the  laying  season,  resorts  to  the  same 
localities  as  the  preceding  species.  At  the  Tortugas,  for  example, 
it  arrives  in  June,  and  lays  a  second  time  in  August.  The  total 
number  of  its  eggs  is  about  two  hundred  :  they  are  said  to  be 
good  food ;  but  the  flesh  of  this  Tortoise  is  bad,  and  it  is  only  on 
account  of  its  shell  that  it  is  sought. 

35.  The  scale  or  shell  which  covers  the  carapax  of  the  Hawks- 
bill  is  a  substance  which  is  extremely  analogous  to  horn,  but 
which  is  neither  fibrous  nor  lamellar  like  it ;  it  is  as  transparent ; 
its  hardness  is  greater,  and  it  is  capable  of  receiving  and  preser- 
ving the  most  beautiful  polish  ;  and  it  is  very  much  esteemed  in 
the  manufacture  of  toys,  &c.  Each  one  of  these  Tortoises  fur- 
nishes, on  an  average,  from  three  to  four  pounds  of  these  large 
scales,  and  to  detach  them,  it  is  only  necessary  to  expose  the 
carapax  before  burning  coals.  It  is' brought  to  market  without 

34.  What  is  ihe  Hawks-bill  Turtle?     For  what  is  it  most  valued  ? 

35.  What  is  To:  toise  shell  ?     How  is  it  obtained  ? 


SAURIANS.  39 


any  other  preparation,  and  is  known  as  rough  tortoise  shell,  which 
is  afterwards  manufactured  in  the  same  manner  as  horn.  By 
softening  it  by  the  action  of  hot  water,  and  afterwards  pressing, 
it  can  be  spread  out,  soldered  or  moulded  into  any  required  shape. 
What  is  termed  rww,  or  cast  shelly  is  obtained  by  agglutinating, 
by  a  similar  process,  the  scrapings  and  powder,  detached  from  the 
ordinary  shell,  in  fashioning,  or  giving  it  the  desired  dimensions. 
36.  The  marine  Tortoises,  designated  under  the  name  of 
SPHARGIS,  have  no  covering  composed  of  horny  plates,  but  one 
of  a  coriaceous  skin,  similar  to  leather.  Only  one  species  is 
known,  the  Luth,  which  is  found  in  the  Mediterranean,  and  the 
Atlantic  ;  it  attains  seven  or  eight  feet  in  length. 


LESSON   III. 

ORDER   OP   SAUEIA. — Organization. — Classification. 
FAMILY  OP  CROCODILIDA.  —  Circulation.  —  Habits.  —  Crocodile* 

properly  so  called. — Alligators. 

FAMILY  OF  LACERTINIDA. — Characters. — Monitors. — Lizards. 
FAMILY  OP  IGUANIDA.  —  Characters.  —  Dragons.  —  Iguanas.  — 

Basilisks. 

FAMILY  OP  GECKOTIDA. — Characters. — Habits. 
FAMILY  OF  CHAMJELEONIDA. — Characters. — Common  Chameleon. 
FAMILY  OF  SCINCOIDEA — Characters — Scinques — Fossil  Saurian*. 

ORDER   OP   OPHIDIA,  or  Serpents.—  Characters. 

FAMILY  OF  ANGUINA. — Characters. 

FAMILY  OF  SERPENTIA,  or  True  Serpents. — Coluber. —  Boa. — 

Venomous  Serpents.  —  Rattle  Snake.  —  Trigonocephalus 

Vipers.— Naia,  or  rfsps. — Effects  and  treatment  of  the  bites 
of  Vipers,  #c. 

FAMILY  OF  NUDA. — Characters. 


ORDER    OF    SAURIANS. 

1.  The  order  of  Sauria  comprises  all  reptiles  that  resemble 
lizards  in  their  general  conformation.  Animals  of  this  order 
always  have  an  elongated  body,  terminated  by  a  tail  of  greater 
or  less  length,  and  provided  with  extremities,  which,  with  some 
exceptions,  are  four  in  number. 

36.  How  are  the  Tortoises  of  the  genus  Sphargis  characterised? 
1.  What  is  the  general  character  of  animals  included  in  the  order  of 
Sauria  ? 


40 .    ORGANIZATION  OF  SAURIANS. 

2.  Their  extremities  are  short,  and  placed   unfavourably   for 
rapid  movement.     In  general,  they  are  wide  apart,  and  directed 
outwards  at  a  right  angle  with  the  body,  so  that  they    cannot 
sustain  the  weight  of  the  trunk  :  most  of  these  reptiles  drag  the 
belly  and  tail  on  the  ground.     The  toes,  which  are  very  distinct, 
and  ordinarily  five  in  number,  terminate  in  sharp,  curved  nails ; 
sometimes  they  are  very  long  and  slender,  at   others,  widened, 
and  furnished  beneath  with  folds  variously  arranged,  and  at  other 
times  again,  united  by  palmate  membranes,  which  modifications 
are  in  conformity  with  the  animal's  mode  of  life. 

3.  The  skeleton  has  no  important  remarkable  peculiarity.  The 
number  of  vertebrae  is  very  variable,  particularly  in  the   caudal 
region  :  there  always  exist  moveable  ribs  which  often  protect  the 
abdomen  as  well  as  the  thorax.     The  sternum  is  never  wanting. 
The  shoulder  is  ordinarily  formed  of  three  bones,  (a  scapula,  a 
clavicle,  and  a  coracoid  bone,)  united  in  a  kind  of  ring,  so  as  to 
envelope  the  anterior  part  of  the  chest,  and  all  concur  in  the 
formation  of  the  cavity  designed  to  lodge  the  head  of  the  humerus. 
The  pelvis  is  also  composed  of  three  pieces,  and  is  joined  to  the 
sacrum,  which  consists  of  two  vertebra. 

4.  The  skin  of  these  animals  is  always  covered  by  a  thick  and 
unequal  epidermic  layer,  which  forms  scales  or  plates  of  greater 
or  less  size. 

5.  The  mouth,  which  is  deeply  cleft,  is  without  fleshy  lips ;  it 
is  armed  with  teeth,  generally  of  a  conical  form,  that  serve   to 
seize  and  hold  their  prey,  but  rarely  to  grind  their   food.     They 
are  often  found  in  the  palate,  as  well  as  in  the  two  jaws.     The 
food  of  Saurians  consists   essentially  of  animal  substances ;  the 
digestive  canal  is  ordinarily  quite  short ;  in  general,  the  stomach 
is  scarcely  distinguishable  from  the  oesophagus ;  but  sometimes 
it  has  the  form  of  a  more  or  less  globular  pouch. 

6.  The  disposition  of  the  circulatory  system,  varies  in   these 
animals ;  in  general,  the  heart  is  but  imperfectly  divided  in   its 
ventricular  portion,  so  that  the  venous  blood  and  arterial  blood 
mingle  in  its  interior  ;  but  in  crocodiles,  the  separation  between 
the  two  halves  of  this  organ  is  complete,  and  the  mixture  of  the 
two  kinds  of  blood  takes  place  only  in  the  descending  aorta. 

7.  The   lungs,  in  general,  are  large,  and  extend  more  or  less 
into  the  abdomen.     The  air  is  renewed  in   them  by  the   same 

2.  What  is  the  character  of  their  extremities  ? 

3.  What  is  remarkable  in  the  skeleton  of  Sauria  ? 

4.  What  is  the  character  of  the  skin  of  Sauria? 

5.  What  is  the  character  and  situation  of  the  teeth  in  Sauria  ? 

6.  Is  the  circulation  of  the  blood  the  same  in  all  Suuria  ?     What   are   its 
general  characters  ? 

7.  How  do  the  Saurian's  breathe  ? 


DIVISION  OF  SAURIANS. 41 

mechanism  as  in  mammals  and  birds,  that  is,  by  the  alternate 
dilatation  and  contraction  of  the  cavity  of  the  thorax,  effected  by 
the  action  of  the  ribs. 

8.  The  order  of  Saurians  may  be  divided  into  six  families, 
namely:  Crocodilians,  Lacertians,  Chameleonians,  lguanianst 
Geckotians,  and  Scincoidians,  which  may  be  distinguished  by 
the  following  characters : 

SAURIANS, 


Certain  fossil  reptiles,  which  cannot  be  classed  in  any  one  of 
the  above  families,  are  also  referred  to  this  order :  some  of  them 
were  formed  for  swimming  exclusively,  and  others  for  flight. 

8.  What  is  tbe  division  of  the  order  of  Sauria  1 
3* 


CROCODILES. 


CROCODILE    OF    THE    NILE. 


FAMILY  OF  CROCODILIANS. 

9.  Crocodiles  differ  in  so  many  respects  from  other   Saurians, 
that  many  authors  think  they  ought  to    constitute  a  separate 

f     JQ  order.      Their  internal 

organization  seems  to 
place  them  as  a  con- 
necting link  between 
reptiles  and  the  higher 
vertebrata.  They  are 
very  easily  recognised 
by  their  laterally  com- 
pressed tail,  and  by  their 
toes,  five  before,  and  four  behind,  all  of  them  more  or  less  united 
by  membranes,  which  is  indicative  of  aquatic  habits. 

10.  The  most  remarkable  peculiarity  in  the  structure  of  these 
animals,  is  the  disposition  of  their  circulatory  system  :  it  is  such 
that  the  whole  posterior  part  of  the  body  receives  only  a  mixture 
of  arterial  and  venous  blood,  while  the  head  is  supplied  with  pure 
arterial  blood.     The  heart  has  four  cavities,  two  auricles,  and 
two  distinct  ventricles,  as  in  mammals  and  birds.     The  arterial 

blood,  coming  from  the  lungs,  passes 
from  the  left  auricle  into  the  ventricle 
of  the  same  side,  which  in  its  turn,  sends 
the  blood  into  the  aorta,  (Fig.  11.)  The 
[..ap  venous  blood,  received  into  the  right  ven- 
tricle, finds  no  direct  passage  into  the 
left  ventricle,  as  is  the  case  in  other  rep- 
tiles ;  but  it  does  not  all  go  to  the  lungs, 
as  it  does  in  the  warm-blooded  verte- 
brata ;  for,  alongside  of  the  pulmonary 
arteries,  (op.)  is  found  another  vessel, 
(a.)  which  also  arises  from  the  right  ven- 
tricle, and  which,  after  bending  back- 
wards behind  the  heart, terminates  in  the 

Explanation  of  Fig.  11. — Heart  and  great  vessels  of  a  crocodile: — 
t?,  t),  veins  which  bring  the  blood  from  different  parts  of  the  body  to  the  right 
auricle  of  the'heart,  (od,) — w£,  the  two  ventricles  which  are  separated  inter- 
nally by  a  paitition, — ap,  the  two  pulmonary  arteries  which  go  from  the 
right  ventricle  to  the  lungs, — a,  the  vessel  which  arises  from  the  same  ven- 
tricle, and  empties  into  the  descending  aorta, — vp,  pulmonary  veins  which 
convey  the  arterial  blood  from  the  lungs  to  the  left  auricle,  (og,}  from  which 
it  descends  into  the  left  ventricle,  and  directly  enters  the  aorta,  (ao,)  and  the 
two  arteries,  (c,  c,)  which  are  distributed  to  the  head,  &c. 

9.  What  are  the  general  characters  of  the  crocodiles  ? 
10.  What  are  the  peculiarities  in  the  circulation  in  crocodiles  ? 


Fig.  11. 
ap  c  c  a 


vp 


CROCODILES.  43 


descending  aorta,  (ao.)  It  follows,  therefore,  that  at  every  con- 
traction of  the  heart,  one  portion  of  venous  blood  is  sent  to  the 
lungs,  and  another  portion  is  mingled  with  the  arterial  blood ; 
but  this  mixture  takes  place  in  the  interior  of  the  aorta,  below 
the  point  of  origin  of  those  branches,  (c,c.J  which  this  vessel 
sends  to  the  head  and  anterior  part  of  the  trunk,  so  that  these 
parts  receive  pure  arterial  blood,  while  all  those,  the  arteries  of 
which  arise  posteriorly  to  the  point  of  junction  between  the  aorta 
and  the  vessel  coming  from  the  right  ventricle,  receive  only  a 
mixture  of  red  and  black  blood. 

11.  The  lungs  of  Crocodiles  do  not  extend  into  the  abdomen, 
like  those  of  other  reptiles,  and  are  separated  from  its  viscera  by 
a  sort  of  imperfect  diaphragm.  It  is  also  to  be  remarked,  that 
the  canal  through  which  the  air  penetrates  to  these  organs,  can 
be  completely  separated  from  the  mouth  by  letting  down  a  fold, 
analogous  to  the  veil  of  the  palate  in  mammals,  an  arrangement, 
which  permits  them  to  remain  under  water,  with  the  mouth  open, 
to  await  their  prey,  without  interrupting  their  respiration.  And 
their  nostrils,  which  open  at  the  extremity  of  the  muzzle,  are 
closed  by  valves. 

12*  Their  mouth  is  cleft  beyond  the  ears,  and  the  lower  jaw  is 
prolonged  backwards  beyond  the  cranium,  which  makes  the  upper 
one  seem  to  be  moveable  ;  but  it  only  moves  with  the  cranium. 
There  is,  in  each  jaw,  a  single  row  of  very  strong,  pointed  teeth, 
planted  in  distinct  alveoli.  The  tongue  is  fleshy,  flat,  and  attached 
to  the  lower  jaw,  very  close  to  its  edges,  and  hardly  distinct  from 
it,  which  led  the  ancients  to  believe  that  it  was  entirely  wanting. 
The  stomach  is  in  the  form  of  a  rounded  pouch. 

13.  The  skeleton  also,  has  several  peculiarities.     The  cervical 
vertebrae  rest  one  on  the  other  through  the  medium  of  small 
false  ribs,   which  renders  lateral  motion  difficult.     Besides  the 
ordinary  ribs,  there  is  found,  between  the  muscles  of  the  abdo- 
men, analogous  bones,  which  protect  the  viscera  without  extend- 
ing to  the  dorsal  spine  ;  these  reptiles  are  the  only  Saurians  that 
want  clavicles,  properly  so  called. 

14.  Crocodiles  are  large  animals;  their  back  is  covered  by 
large,  square,  very  strong  scales  which  are  carenate  (ridged,)  in 
the  middle.     The  tail  has  a  similar  covering,  and  is  furnished   on 
top  with  a  strongly  notched  crest  which  is  double  at  its  base ;  the 

11.  What  are  the  peculiarities  of  the  respiratory  organs  in  Crocodiles? 

12.  Do  Crocodiles  move  the  upper  jaw  ?  What  is  remarkable  in  the  lower 
jaw  ?     What  is  the  character  of  their  teeth  ?     Have   Crocodiles  a  tongue  ? 
What  are  its  peculiarities  ? 

13.  What  are  the  peculiarities  of  the  skeleton  ? 

14.  What  is  the  character  of  the  integuments  of  Crocodiles  ? 


44  CROCODILES. 


plates  on  the  belly  are  thin,  smooth,  and  square,  and  arranged  in 
transverse  bands. 

15.  These  large  and  powerful  animals  inhabit  the  hottest  parts 
of  both  continents,  and  ordinarily  keep  in  fresh  water  rivers  and 
lakes.    Their  gait  is  usually  slow ;  though  they  can  swim  with  ex- 
treme rapidity,  and  run  very  swiftly  in  a  straight  line,  but,  owing 
to  the  disposition  of  the  vertebra  of  the  neck,  it  is  difficult  for  them 
to  change  their  direction  :  hence,  it  is  easy  to  avoid  them  by  turn- 
ing or  running  around  them.     They  are  very  carnivorous,  and 
formidable  even  for  man.     They  cannot  swallow  in  the  water ; 
but  they  generally  drag  their  prey  there  to  drown,  and,  it  is  said, 
they  deposit  it  in  some  hole  to  putrify  before  eating  it. 

16.  These  animals,  notwithstanding,  they  are  so   formidable, 
and  so  well  furnished  with  protective  armour,  have  foes  to  dread, 
and  these  enemies  are  feeble  insects,  a  sort  of  ant,  which  intro- 
duce themselves  into  their  mouth,  in  immense   numbers,   the 
moment  they  go  on  shore,  and  torment  them  with  their  stings ; 
but,  what  is  very  singular,  little  birds  often  come  to  deliver  them 
from  this  scourge,  and  enter  their  great  mouth  without   fear,  in 
pursuit  of  the  insects.     This  fact,  observed  by  Herodotus,   and 
afterwards  treated  as  a  fable,  has  been  confirmed  in  modern  times, 
by  Geoffrey  Saint  Hilaire,  who  accompanied  the  Emperor  Napo- 
leon in  Egypt.     A  species  of  Plover  performs   this  interesting 
service  for  the  crocodile  of  the  Nile,  and  in  the  West  Indies,  the 
Tody  has  a  similar  habit. 

17.  The  family  of  crocodilida  is  composed   of  three  genera, 
namely :  Crocodiles  properly  so  called,  Caimans,  or  J%lligatorst 
and  Gavials: 

simply  notched  on  1 

each  side  to  receive  !         CROCODILES 

the  fourth  tooth  of  j   Properly  so  called. 


s  § 


£ 


wide,  and  the 
whole     head  4 
oblong ;     the 
upper  jaw 


the  lower  jaw.          J 

with  a  hole  on  each  ^ 
side  to  receive  the  !  p 

fourth  tooth  of  the  f 
L  lower  jaw.  J 


slender,  and  very  much  elongated,      ^          GA VIALS. 


18.  CROCODILES  PROPERLY  so  CALLED, — Crocodilus,  —  have  an 
oblong  and  depressed  muzzle,  unequal  teeth,  and  the  upper  jaw 

15.  What  regions  do  Croc6diles  inhabit? 

16.  What  are  the  great  enemies  of  Crocodiles  ? 

17.  What  genera  compose  the  family  of  Crocodilians  ? 

18.  What  are  the  general  characters  of  Crocodiles  properly  so  called? 
Where  are  they  found  ?  What  are  their  habits  ? 


ALLIGATORS.  45 


notched  on  each  side  to  receive  the  fourth  lower  tooth,  when  the 
mouth  is  shut.  The  most  celebrated  and  longest  known  species, 
is  the  Crocodile  of  the  Nile,  an  animal  that  is  sometimes  twenty- 
five,  and  even  thirty  feet  in  length :  it  is  bronze  green,  spotted 
and  marbled  with  brown  above,  yellowish  green  below,  and  is 
distinguished  by  the  square  plates  nearly  equal  in  size,  which 
form  six  rows  along  the  back.  We  find  from  Senegal  to  the 
Ganges,  and  even  beyond  it,  Crocodiles  very  similar  to  that  of  the 
Nile,  which  seem  to  be  only  varieties  of  this  species.  Formerly 
this  reptile  descended  the  Nile  to  its  delta,  and  according  to  Pliny, 
passed  the  four  winter  months  there,  in  caverns  ;  but  in  our  time, 
it  never  quits  Upper  Egypt,  where  it  does  not  hibernate.  The 
Ancient  Egyptians,  particularly  the  inhabitants  of  Thebes,  and 
the  environs  of  the  lake  Moeris,  rendered  great  honours  to  these 
reptiles ;  they  even  made  them  objects  of  religious  worship,  and 
embalmed  their  dead  bodies.  At  Arsinoe,  the  priests  raised  one 
of  these  reptiles,  which  they  kept  in  a  temple,  and  adorned  with 
jewels,  and  fed  with  great  care. 

19.  Crocodiles  properly  so  called,  also  exist  in  America :  the 
Caiman  of  Saint  Domingo,  and  other  parts  of  the  West   Indies, 
belongs  to  this  genus,  and  has  received  the  name  of  Crocodilus 
acutm,  or  sharp  nosed  Crocodile,  from  the  form  of  its  head :  it 
has  four  rows  of  plates  on  its  back,  and  its  length  sometimes 
exceeds  sixteen  feet.     It  is  a  fierce  and  dangerous  animal.     At 
birth,  the  young  are  from  nine  to  ten  inches  long,  and  growth 
continues  for  twenty  years. 

20.  The  CAIMANS,  or  ALLIGATORS,  are  readily  distinguished  from 
Crocodiles  properly  so  called,  by  the  disposition  of  the  fourth  tooth 
of  the  lower  jaw,  which,  when  the  mouth  is  closed,  is  lodged  in 
a  hole,  and  not  in  a  notch  of  the  upper  jaw.     Their  hind  feet,  in 
place  of  being  notched  on  the  external  edge,  and  palmate  to  the 
end  of  the  toes,  are  unprovided  with  notches,  and  are  only  semi- 
palmate.     Many  species  are  known,  but  all  seem  to   belong   to 
America.     One  of  them,  the  Pike-nosed    Alligator, — Crocodilus 
lucius,— inhabits  the   southern   parts  of   North  America,  and, 
during  the  season  of  ice,  buries  itself  in  the  mud,  and   remains 
benumbed  until  the  return  of  a  milder  temperature.     In  Guiana 
and  Brazil,  there  is  another,  the  Spectacle  Alligator, — Crocodilus 
sclerops, — so  called  from  the  ridge  which  unites  the  projecting 
edges  of  the  orbits  in  front.     Like  other  Crocodiles,  the  last  lays 
its  eggs  in  the  sand  ;  but  covers  them  with  straw  or  leaves,  and 
instead  of  abandoning  them,  defends  them  courageously ;  it  is 
from  twelve  to  fifteen  feet  in.  length,  and  rarely  attacks  man. 

19.  Are  there  any  Crocodiles  in  America  ? 

20.  How  are  Alligators  distinguished  from  Crocodiles? 


46 MONITORS.— LIZARDS. 

21.  The  GAVIALS  differ  from  the  two  preceding    genera   in 
their  very  long  slender  muzzle,  as  well  as  in  their  teeth,  which 
are  nearly  equal.     They  are  only  met  with  on  the  eastern  con- 
tinent.    The  most  common  is  the   Gavial   of  the    Ganges, — 
Lacerta  gangetica, — which  is  said  to  attain  thirty  feet  in  length, 
but  is  not  dangerous  either  to  man  or  large  animals  ;  it   feeds 
exclusively  on  fishes. 

FAMILY  OF  LACERTIANS. 

22.  The  Lacertians  have  five  distinct  toes  on  all  their  feet, 
armed  with  nails;  the  tongue  is  thin,  extensile  and  terminated  by 
two  threads  :  their  scales  are  arranged  in  transverse  and  parallel 
bands  around  the  tail,  and  under  the  belly,  some  have  teeth  in 
the  jaws  only,  and  others  have  them  also  in  the  palate.     The  first 
form  the  tribe  of  Monitors,  and  the  second  that  of  Lizards. 

23.  The  MONITORS  generally  have  a  laterally  compressed  tail, 
like  that   of  the  Crocodile.     Monitors  properly   so   called   are 
recognised  by  the  small  scales  that  cover  the  head,  limbs  and 
whole  body.     Two  species  are  found  in  Egypt :  one,  the  Monitor 
of  the  ]\ile, — Lacerta  nilotica, — is  five  or  six  feet  long,    and  is 
seen  sculptured  on  the  monuments   of  the   ancient  Egyptians ; 
the  other,  called  the  Land  Monitor  of  Egypt,  on  account  of  its 
terrestrial  habits,  is  common  in  the  deserts,  in  the  vicinity  of  that 
country. 

24.  Other  Monitors,  called  Sauvegardes,  have  the  top   of  the 
head  furnished  with  angular  plates ;  and  the  belly  and  tail  are 
covered  with  large  rectangular  scales. 

25.  The  TRIBE  OF  LIZARDS,  is  composed  of  Lizards  properly 
so  called,  and  some  similar  genera,  in  which  the  palate  is  armed 
with  two  rows  of  teeth,  and  the  tail  is  cylindrical.    Most  of  them 
are  also  distinguished  by  a  sort  of  collar,  placed  under  the  neck 
and  formed  of  a  transverse  range  of  large  scales,  separated  from 
those  of  the  chest,  by  a  space  covered  only  by  granulations.    In 
general,  they  have  also,  under  each  thigh,  a  longitudinal  series  of 
projecting  pores,  and  the  whole  top  of  the  head  is  armed  with  a 
bony  shield,  which  is  covered  by  large  horny  plates. 

26.  LIZARDS  PROPERLY  so  CALLED, — Lacerta, — have  the  top  of 
the  body  covered  by  small  scales  similar  to   granulations,  while 
beneath  the  belly  they  have   large   transverse   plates.     These 

21.  How  do  Gavials  differ  from  other  Crocodiles  ? 

22.  What  are  the  general  characters  of  the  Lacertians? 

23.  How  are  Monitors  recognised  ? 

24.  What  are  Sanvegardes  ? 

25.  What  are  the  general  characters  of  the  tribe  of  Lizards  ? 

26.  How  are  Lizards  properly  so  called  characterised  ?     What   are   their 
habits  ?     Upon  what  do  they  feed  ?     Are  they  poisonous  ? 


IGUANIANS,  47 


animals  are  agile,  light,  and  elegant  in  form  ;  they  feed  princi- 
pally on  insects,  and  prefer  living  prey.  In  summer  they  eat  a 
great  deal ;  but  they  can  easily  support  a  fast  of  several  weeks 
in  summer,  and  four  or  five  months  in  winter ;  when  held  in  cap- 
tivity, they  generally  refuse  to  take  food ;  yet  they  bite  at  every 
thing  presented  to  them,  and  close  their  jaws  with  considerable 
force.  In  our  climate  they  pass  the  winter  benumbed  in  holes, 
and  their  movements  are  active  in  proportion  as  the  temperature 
is  more  elevated  ;  they  love  to  warm  themselves  in  the  sun  even 
in  midsummer,  and  they  are  often  seen  stretched  on  a  stone  bask- 
ing in  the  sunshine.  Many  fables  have  been  attached  to  these 
animals ;  some  have  pretended,  without  any  reason,  that  they  are 
venomous ;  others,  without  foundation,  assert  that  they  show  a 
true  attachment  for  man,  and  give  him  warning  when  a  serpent 
is  about  to  bite.  A  great  many  species  are  known. 

FAMILY  OF  IGUANIANS. 

27.  The  Saurians  composing  this  family  have  very  nearly  the 
same  general  form  as  the  Lacertians:  they  also  have  a  long  tail, 
free  and  unequal  toes,  &c.;  but  their  tongue  is  fleshy,  thick,  not 
extensile,  and  only  notched  at  the  end. 

28.  The  mouth  presents  the  same  modit^cations  as  the  pre- 
ceding family  :  sometimes  they  have  teeth  in  the  palate  as  well 
as  in  both  jaws ;  sometimes  there  are  only  two  ranges  of  teeth 
in  the  upper  jaw. 

29.  Among  the  first  are  ranged  the  STELLIOS;  they  have  the 
tail  surrounded  by  large  scales,  which   are   often   spiny;    the 
AGAMIANS,  in  which  the  scales  on  the  tail  are  imbricatet  (that   is, 
having  the  scales  lying  over  each  other  like  shingles  on  a  roof,) 
and  not  verticillate,  (that  is,  not  arranged  in  a  circle,  around  a 
centre) ;  the  DRAGONS,  &c.     The  last  are  distinguished  from   all 
other  reptiles  by  a  species  of  wing  formed  on  each  side  by  a  deep 
fold  of  the  skin.     These  appendices  resemble  the  wings  of  a  bat ; 
but  instead  of  being  supported  and  set  in  motion  by  the  extremi- 
ties, they  are  altogether  independent  of  them,  and  are  sustained 
by  the  first  six  false  ribs  which  do  not  surround  the  abdomen, 
but  are  extended  horizontally  in  a  straight  line.     The  animal 
uses  these  wings  as  a  parachute,  to  sustain  itself  in  the  air  when 
it  leaps  from  branch  to  branch ;  but  it   cannot  use   them  with 
sufficient  force  to  fly  like  a  bat  or  a  bird.    These  singular  reptiles, 

27.  What  are  the  general  characters  of  the  Iguanians? 

28.  What  are  the  modifications  met  with  in  the  mouth  ? 

2!).  What  are  Stcllios  ?     What  are  Agamians  ?     How   are   the   Dragons 
characterised  ? 


48 IGUANAS— BASILISKS.— ANOLIS. 

which  inhabit  India,  realize  to  a  certain  extent  the  fable  of  flying 
lizards,  or  serpents,  spoken  of  by  certain  ancient  writers ;  but 

Fig.  12. 


DRAGON. 

the  Dragons  of  zoologists,  instead  of  being  formidable  animals, 
like  those  of  the  poets,  are  of  very  small  size,  and  only  attack 
insects. 

30.  As  examples  of  Iguanians  with  palatine  teeth,   we   will 
mention,  IGUANAS  PROPERLY  so  CALLED,    BASILISKS,  and  ANOLIS. 
The  first  are  covered  by  small  imbricated  scales,  and  have  a 
crest  of  pointed  scales  along  the  back.     There  is  also  observed 
beneath  the  throat,  a  pendent  and  compressed  dew-lap.     Several 
species  are  known  which  inhabit  America ;  one,  four  or  five  feet 
in  length,  is  common  in  all  the  hot  regions  of  the  New   World  : 
it  lives  mostly  on  trees  and  feeds  on  fruits,  leaves,  &c.     Its  flesh 
is  reputed  delicate,  but  unwholesome. 

31.  The  BASILISKS, — Basiliacus, — have   along   the  back   and 
tail,   a  continued,   elevated   crest,  which  is  supported    by   the 
spinous  processes  of  the  vertebrae ;   they  feed  on  grains,  and 
inhabit  Guiana. 

32.  The  ANOLIS, — rfnolius, — which  also  belong  to  America, 
are  distinguished  by  the  conformation  of  their  toes,  the  antepe- 
nultimate joint  of  which  is  furnished  on  the  under  part,  with  an 
oval,   striated  disk,  by   the  assistance  of  which  these  reptiles 
cling  to  the  surface  upon  which  they  climb.     Many  of  them  pos- 
sess the  power  of  changing  the  colour  of  their  skin. 

To  the  family  of  Iguanas  also  belongs  an  enormous  reptile, 
called  Mosasaurus,  the  fossil  bones  of  which  have  been  found  at 
Maestricht. 

30.  What  are  Iguanas  properly  so  called  ?    What  are  their  habits  ? 

31.  What  are  Basilisks? 

32.  How  are  the  Anolis  characterised  ? 


^       GECKOS —CHAMELEONS. 49 

~FAMILY  OF  GECKO  HANS. 

33.  The  Saurians   designated  under  the   collective  name   of 
Geckos^  are  nocturnal  animals,  dull  and  heavy  in  appearance ; 
their  walk  is  crawling,  and  their  squat  and  flattened  form  is  in 
striking  contrast  with  that  of  most  of  the  reptiles  we  have  here- 
tofore mentioned.     Their  head  is  wide  and  depressed ;  their  eyes 
are  very  large,  and  very  prominent ;  their  jaws  are  armed  all 
round  with  a  single  row  of  small  teeth  ;  but  there  are  none  in  the 
palate.     Their  tongue  is  fleshy,  and  not  extensile ;  the  body  is 
studded  above  by  small  granular  scales,  among  which  are  larger 
tubercles,  (the  whole  resembling  shagreen,)  and  covered  beneath 
by  flat,  imbricated  scales ;  their  feet  are  moderate  in  size,  and  their 
five,  almost  equal  toes,  are  ordinarily  widened  throughout,  or  in 
part,  armed  with  retractile  nails,  and  furnished  beneath  with  a  fold 
of  skin,  by  the  aid  of  which  they  adhere  to  bodies  upon  which  they 
walk.     This  conformation  of  the  toes  enables  them  to  walk  easily 
on  the  smoothest  walls,  and  even  upon  ceilings.     During  the  day, 
they  conceal  themselves  in  obscure  places,  and,  at  night,  more 
especially,  they  seek  spiders,  and  other  animals  upon  which  they 
feed.     The  ugliness  of  these  reptiles  is  extreme,   and   we   are 
assured,  that  the  contact  of  their  feet  on  our  skin,  often  excites 
a  sort  of  inflammation  :  they  are  everywhere  objects  of  aversion, 
and  they  are  charged  with  being  venomous,   but  this  opinion  is 
not  sustained  by  positive  proof. 

The  Geckos  are  very  numerous,  and  disseminated  throughout 
the  warm  parts  of  both  continents. 

FAMILY  OF  CHAMELEONS. 

34.  The  Chameleons, —  Chamceleo,  —  are    Fig,  13. 
distinguished  from  all  other  Saurians  by  their 

toes,  which  are  five  in  number  on  all  their  feet, 
but  divided  into  two  opposable  parcels  or  bun- 
dles, an  arrangement  which  makes  these  ani- 
mals essentially  climbers,  destined  to  live  on 
the  branches  of  trees,  (Fig.  13.)  A  number 
of  peculiarities  of  organization  separates  them 
from  all  the  reptiles  we  have  thus  far  con- 
sidered. Their  tail,  round  and  prehensile, 
serves  them  as  a  fifth  extremity,  in  suspend- 
ing themselves  from  branches,  and  aids  them 
in  their  slow  and  awkward  movements.  Their 

33.  What  are  Geckos  ?     What  are  their  general  characters? 

34.  What  are  the  distinguishing  characters  of  Chameleons  ?     Upon  what 
do  they  feed  ?     How  does  the  Chameleon  change  its  colour  ?    What  are  the 
peculiarities  of  the  skin  in  Chameleons  ? 

4 


50  CHAMELEONS. 


eyes,  which  are  very  large  and  very  projecting,  are  almost  entirely 
covered  by  the  skin ;  the  light  reaches  them  only  through  a  little 
hole,  situate  opposite  to  the  pupil,  and  these  organs  move  alto- 
gether independently  of  each  other.  Their  mouth  is  armed  with 
small  tri-lobed  teeth,  and  their  tongue,  fleshy  and  cylindrical,  is 
extremely  extensile :  they  can  dart  it  out  of  the  mouth  to  a  dis- 
tance that  sometimes  exceeds  the  length  of  the  body,  and  they 
use  it  to  seize  living  insects  upon  which  they  feed.  Their  body 
is  compressed,  and  the  back  is  ridged,  or,  as  it  were,  trenchant, 
and  the  skin  is  covered  by  small  scaly  granulations.  These 
singular  animals  are  celebrated  for  their  faculty  of  almost  instantly 
changing  colour;  and,  if  we  believe  the  ancient  writers,  they  even 
possess  the  power  of  assuming  successively,  the  hues  of  all  the 
objects  by  which  they  are  surrounded,  in  order  to  conceal  them- 
selves more  effectually  from  their  enemies.  The  observations  of 
naturalists  have  already  robbed  the  history  of  the  Chameleon  of 
the  fables  with  which  it  was -loaded ;  and,  although  the  faculty  of 
changing  its  colours,  in  this  manner,  has  been  denied,  it  has  been 
ascertained  that  it  really  undergoes  the  most  remarkable  changes, 
being  sometimes  almost  white,  sometimes  yellowish,  at  other 
times  green,  reddish,  and  even  almost  black,  either  entirely  or 
only  on  parts  of  the  body.  These  changes  are  particularly 
observed,  when  the  animal  is  excited  either  by  anger  or  by 
heat.  When  it  has  remained  for  some  time  in  a  dark,  cold 
place,  it  is  almost  white,  and  warming  it,  or  stimulating  it, 
causes  it  to  assume  a  bottle  green,  or  vinous  red  hue,  which- 
often  becomes  so  intense  that  it  appears  to  be  almost  black. 
For  a  long  time,  these  changes  were  attributed  to  the  greater 
or  less  distension  of  the  very  large  lungs  of  this  animal,  and 
to  corresponding  modifications  in  the  quantity  of  blood  se,nt 
to  the  skin;  but  we  are  assured,  there  is  no  necessary  relation 
bt-tvveen  these  phenomena  ;  and  dissection  of  the  skin  teaches  us 
that  we  must  seek  the  cause  of  these  variations  of  colour  in  the 
particular  mode  of  the  structure  of  this  membrane.  We  find,  in 
fact,  that  it  contains  different  colouring  matters,  some  of  which 
can  sometimes  rise  to  the  surface,  and  in  a  degree  mask  the 
others,  and  at  other  times  retire,  and  become  hidden  beneath  the 
superficial  pigment. 

35.  Only  a  single  genus  of  Saurians,  possessing  the  above 
described  organization,  is  known  ;  but  many  species  of  Chame- 
leons have  been  ascertained.  One  of  them,  very  common  in 
the  neighbourhood  of  Algiers,  is  met  with  from  Spain  to  the 
Indies. 

35.  How  many  genera  of  Chameleons  are  known  ? 


SCINCOIDS. 


51 


FAMILY  OF  SCINCOTDEA. 

36.  The  Saurians  which  compose  this  family  are  recognised 
by  their  short  feet,  their  tongue,  which  is  slightly  or  not  at  all 
extensible,  and  by  the  equal,  and  ordinarily  im- 
bricated scales,  which  cover  the  body  above  and 

below.     Some  of  them  are  spindle-shaped,  and 

others  have  the  body  so  much  elongated,  and  the 

tail  not  very  distinguishable  from  it,   (Fig.   14.)   Fi9-  14< 

that  they  resemble  serpents.     In  many,  the  feet 

are  too  short  to  serve  for  locomotion,  and  there 

are  some  in  which  one  pair  of  extremities,  either 

the  anterior  or  posterior,  is    entirely  wanting. 

The  Scincoidea  evidently  form  the  connecting 

link  between  the  Saurians  and  Ophidians. 

37.  Among  the    Scincoidea    we    place    the 
ScmauES,  the  SEPS,  the  BIPEDES,  the  CHALCIDES, 
and  the  BIMANA.     In  the  two  first  genera  there 
are  four  feet,  and  in  the  Seps  the  body  is  more 
elongated,   and  more    vermiform    than   in    the 
Scinques.     The   Bipedes,  (Fig.  14.)   and   Chal- 
cides,    want  the  anterior   extremities,  and   the 
Bimana  have  the  fore  feet  only. 

38.  Long  previous  to  the  epoch  of  the  crea- 
tion of  man,  there  existed  on  the  surface  of  the 

globe,  a  great  number  of  gigantic  reptiles,  the  bones  of  which 
are  found  in  a  fossil  state.  Among  these  Saurians,  the  race  of 
which  is  extinct,  are  found  Lacertians,  resembling  Monitors,  that 
must  have  been  from  thirty  to  forty  feet  in  length  ;  but  many  of 
these  lost  animals  are  particularly  remarkable  for  their  anomalous 
structure.  In  England,  near  Honfleur,  and  in  other  localities, 
we  find  in  the  very  ancient  formations,  the  remains  of  many 
species  of  two  genera  of  Saurians,  whose  broad  feet,  in  the  form 
of  battledores,  indicate  that  these  animals  were  entirely  aquatic. 
They  are  designated  under  the  names  of  PLESIAOSURUS,  and 
ICTHYOSAURUS.  And  another  reptile,  (Fig.  1  5.)  still  more  extra- 
ordinary, has  been  discovered  in  some  of  the  ancient  layers  of 
the  earth.  According  to  the  structure  of  its  bony  frame,  we  see, 
like  the  bat,  it  must  have  been  capable  of  walking  and  flying ; 
for  its  posterior  extremities,  and  all  the  toes  of  the  fore  feet,  with 
a  single  exception,  are  formed  in  the  ordinary  way ;  but  the 
second  toe  of  the  anterior  extremities  is  more  than  twice  as  long 

36_  How  are  the  Scincoidea  characterised? 

37.  What  are  the  divisions  of  the  Scincoidea? 

38.  What  is  the  Pterodactylus  ? 


PTERODACTYLUS. 


Fig.  15 


as  the  body,  and  probably  sustained  a  fold  of  skin,  fitted  to 
perform  the  functions  of  wings.*  To  indicate  this  singular  con- 
formation, the  generic  name  of  PTERODACTYLUS  has  been  given 
to  these  fossil  Saurians. 


ORDER    OF    OPHIDIANS,    OR    SERPENTS. 

39.  We  ordinarily  group  with  Serpents,  or  Ophidians,  all  rep- 
tiles that  have  a  cylindrical,  elongated  body,  without  extremities ; 
but  in  order  that  the  classification  of  these  animals  may  represent 
the  modifications  introduced  by  nature  in  their  organization,  and 
indicate  the  degree  of  physiological  importance   of  these   diffe- 
rences, it  becomes  necessary  to  separate  from  the  serpents,  some 
apodous  reptiles  in  which  respiration  is  at  first   branchial,   then 
pulmonary,  as  it  is  in  ordinary  Batrachians.     On  the  other  hand, 
the  passage  between  the  Saurians  and  Ophidians  is  so  gradual, 
that  the  limits  between  these  two  orders  are  somewhat  arbitrary. 
Some  naturalists  even  think,  they  should  not  be  separated,  and, 
according  to  others,  it  would  be  proper  to  range  in  the   division 
of  Saurians,  those  reptiles  that,  by  their  internal  organization, 
are  removed  from  the  common  type  of  Ophidians,  and  approach 
that  of  the  Scincoidea. 

40.  The  apodous  reptiles,  which  are  in  a  manner  intermediate 
between  the  Saurians  and  the  Serpents  properly  so   called,  are 

*  The  dotted  line  indicates  what  it  is  presumed,  was  the  outline  of  the  animal. 

39,  What  description  of  reptiles  belong  to  the  order  of  Ophidians. 

40.  What  are  the  general  characters  of  the   Angues?     What    are   their 
habits?     Upon  what  do  they  feed  ?     What  aru  Glass-Snakes  ?     What  are 
the  characters  of  the  common  Angue  of  Europe  ? 


STRUCTURE  OF  OPHIDIANS. 53 

the  SNAKES,  or  ANGUES, — rfiiguina.  They  are  easily  distinguished 
by  the  imbricate  scales,  which  cover  the  body  like  those  of 
the  Scincoidea;  they  also  approximate  the  Saurians  by  the 
presence  of  three  eye-lids,  organs  that  are  not  found  in  true 
serpents.  The  tongue  is  fleshy,  and  but  slightly  extensile,  and 
the  bony  skull  possesses  the  same  conformation  as  that  of  the 
Scinques;  and  we  find  beneath  the  skin  of  most  of  these  animals, 
vestiges  of  a  pelvis  and  shoulder  bones.  On  the  other  hand,  they 
resemble  true  serpents  in  the  general  form  of  the  body,  and  in 
the  small  size  of  their  lungs.  They  are  very  mild  animals,  and, 
when  taken  hold  of,  do  not  attempt  to  bite.  Their  mouth  is 
small,  and  armed  with  teeth  like  those  of  the  Scincoidea ;  they 
feed  on  different  insects  and  terrestrial  mollusks,  and  entirely 
conceal  themselves  in  holes,  and  are  torpid  in  winter.  Their 
tail,  like  that  of  lizards,  breaks  with  the  greatest  facility,  and 
some  Angues  stiffen  themselves  so  much  when  taken  that  the 
body  breaks,  which  singular  circumstance  has  obtained  for  them 
the  name  of  Glass-snakes.  The  Common  JLngue  of  Europe, — 
rfnguis  fragilis, — is  about  a  foot  long,  and  its  tail,  which  is 
obtuse,  and  like  the  rest  of  the  body,  is  of  the  same  length  as  the 
latter.  Its  scales  are  smooth  and  shining ;  it  is  blackish  beneath, 
and  of  a  yellowish  lead  colour  above,  with  three  black  bands, 
which,  as  it  advances  in  age,  change  to  a  series  of  points,  and 
finally  disappear  ;  it  has  no  external  tympanum.  It  digs  subter- 
raneous galleries,  and  produces  its  young  like  vipers,  in  which 
the  eggs  are  hatched  before  they  are  laid. 

41.  The   TRUE  SERPENTS, — Serpentia, — possess   no    internal 
trace  of  anterior  extremities :  they  have  no  vestige   of  sternum 
or  shoulder ;  but  many  of  them  have,  beneath   the   skin,  rudi- 
ments of  posterior  extremities,  which  sometimes  show  themselves 
externally,  in  the  form  of  a  small  hook.     The  skin  is   furnished 
with  scales,  which,  in  general,  are  small,  and   imbricate   above, 
and  in  the  form  of  broad  quadrangular  plates  beneath  :  they 
have  no  tympanum,  and  their  eyes  appear  to  be  entirely  without 
lids ;  for  they  are  only  covered  by  a  sort  of  single  and  immove- 
able  veil,  which  is  set  in,  like  a  watch-glass,  in  front  of  the  orbit, 
and  which  permits  the  passage  of  light. 

42.  The  vertebra  and  ribs,  by  themselves,  form   almost  the 
whole  skeleton  of  serpents.     Their  number  is  very  considerable ; 
in  the  viper  we  count  198  vertebrae;  in  the  Boa,  304;  and  in  the 
Ringed  Snake,  316.     The  form  of  these  bones  is  nearly  the  same 
throughout  the  column,  and  their  mode  of  articulation   is  very 

41.  What  kind  of  eye-lids  have  true  Serpents?     What  are  the   general 
characters  of  Serpents  ? 

42.  What  bones  are  most  numerous  in  the  skeleton  of  Serpents  ? 


54 STRUCTURE  OF  OPHIDIANS. 

remarkable :  the  anterior  part  of  the  body  of  each  vertebra  pre- 
sents a  rounded  semi-spherical  tubercle  which  is  received  in  a 
corresponding  cavity  on  the  posterior  face  of  the  vertebra  next 
to  it.  This  mode  of  articulation  explains  the  movements  of  the 
body  of  these  animals,  which,  in  general,  are  executed  laterally, 
and  not  from  above  downwards;  in  fact,  the  spinous  processes 
which  prevail  along  the  back  are  ordinarily  so  disposed  as  to 
prevent  the  vertebral  column  from  bending  very  much  in  this 
direction.  The  ribs  surround  a  large  part  of  the  circumference 
of  the  trunk,  and  are  wanting  only  on  the  caudal  vertebrae.  The 
first  pair  are  smaller  than  the  others  ;  but  they  commence  at  the 
head,  so  that  these  animals  have  no  neck.  We  count  in  some 
instances  as  many  as  250  pairs. 

43.  Serpents  are  essentially  carnivorous ;   they  can   endure 
abstinence  for  a  long  time ;  but,  in  general,  when  the  opportunity 
occurs,  they  gorge  the  stomach  with  such  a   quantity   of  food, 
that,  during  digestion,  they  remain  in  a  state  of  greater   or   less 
torpor :  they  do  not  chew  their  food  ;  but  their  mouth  is  armed 
with  hooked  teeth,  suited  for  retaining  their  prey.     Their  tongue 
is  very  extensible,  and  terminates  in  two  long,  semi-cartilaginous, 
and  very  moveable  filaments.     The  digestive  canal  is  very  short, 
and  the  stomach  is  merely  a  slight  dilatation  of  this  tube. 

44.  The  circulation  is  carried  on  in  the  same  manner  as  in 
Tortoises  and  Saurians,  except  Crocodiles.     The  heart  is   com- 
posed of  two  auricles  and  a  single  ventricle,  incompletely  divided 
into  two  cavities,  from  each  one  of  which  arises  an  aorta,  which 
joins  its  fellow  behind  this  organ.     The  lungs  are  very  unequal 
in  size,  and  generally  one  of  the  two  is  entirely  atrophied,  while 
the  other  is  very  large,  and  prolonged  into  the  abdomen,  above 
and  beyond  the  stomach  and  liver :  it  is  in  the  form  of  a   large 
membranous  sack,  in  the  interior  of  which  are  found  great  poly- 
gonal cells.     The  air  is  renewed  in  them  by  the  motions  of  the 
ribs  and  abdominal  muscles,  nearly  in  the  same  way  as  it  is  in 
saurians  and  birds.     Probably,  it  is  in  part  owing  to  the  position 
of  the  lungs  that  serpents  become  torpid  after  a  copious  repast ; 
for,  every  time  they  swallow  a  prey  of  large  size,  this  organ  must 
be  compressed,  and  the  pulmonary  circulation  impeded. 

45.  The  structure  of  the  head  varies  in  these  animals.    Some- 
times the  lower  jaw,  the  two  branches  of  which  are  solidly  united 
in  front,  is  supported  on  a  tympanic  bone,  which  is  itself  immedi- 

43.  Upon  what  do  Serpents  feed  ?     Do  they  chew  their  food  ?     What  is 
the  character  of  their  digestive  organs  ? 

44.  What  are  the  peculiarities  of  the  circulation  in  Serpents?  What  is  the 
character  of  their  respiratory  apparatus?     Why  are  Serpents  torpid  after  a 
full  meal  ? 

45.  IB  the  structure  of  the  head  the  same  in  all  these  animals  ? 


STRUCTURE  OF  OPHIDIANS. 


55 


Fig.  16.* 


ately  articulated  with  the  cranium,  as  in  Saurians  and  Chelonians ; 
but,  in  general,  the  tympanic  bones  are  moveable. 

46.  The  true  Serpents  with  im moveable  tympanic  bones  also 
have  the  upper  jaw  fixed  to  the  cranium,  and  the  mouth  but  little 
dilatable,  (Fig.  16.):  they  form  the  small 

family  of  double  walkers, — Jlniphisbcena.) — 

so  called  from  their  faculty  of  moving  equally 

well,  both  forward  and  backwards.     Those 

that  form  the  genus  of  Amphisbaena  have 

the  body  surrounded  by  circular  ranges  of 

small  quadrangular  scales,  like  certain  Scincoids ;    the   others. 

called  TYPHLOPS,  have  small  imbricate  scales,  and  at  first  sight, 

resemble  earth  worms.    These  Ophidians  inhabit  the  warm  coun 

tries  of  both  continents :  some  of  them  are  blind. 

47.  True  Serpents  having  moveable  tympanic  bones,  form  a 
more  numerous  family      Some  of  them  resemble  the  preceding  in 
the  cylindrical  form  of  the  head  and  body,  and  in  the  smallness  of 
their  scales.     The  mouth  is  less  dilatable  than  in  other  ophidians 
of  this  division  ;  for  the  tympanic  bone  is  directly  articulated  to 
the  cranium,  while,  in  the  last,  it  is  suspended  to  a  mastoid  bone 
which  is  itself  moveable.     The  genus  of  Tortrix,  possesses  this 
kind  of  organization. 

48.  In  all  the  ORDINARY  SERPENTS, 
we  have  yet  to  mention,  the  mouth 
is  so  formed  as  to  enable  the  ani- 
mal to  swallow  bodies  larger  than 
itself.     The  two   branches  of  the 
lower  jaw  are  not  united,  and  the 
kind   of  peduncle  which   sustains 
them   ( the   tympanic    bone,    Fig. 
17,  £.)  is  not  only  moveable  itself, 
but  is  suspended  to  another  portion 


I7.t 


n 


*  Explanation  of  Fig.  1 6. — The  bony  head  of  an  Ophidian  of  the  division 
of  Amphisbaena. 

^Explanation  of  Fig.  17. — Bony  head  of  a  Rattlesnake, — c.the  cranium, 
— ma.  the  mastoid  bone  which  articulates  by  one  extremity,  with  the 
cranium,  and  by  the  other,  supports  the  tympanic  bone,  (*.) — mi.  the  lower 
jaw  suspended  from  the  tympanic  bone, — n.  the  vomer  and  nasal  bones, — TO. 
the  moveable  upper  jaw  bone, — pi.  one  of  the  pterygoid  bones  (portions  of 
the  sphenoid,)  the  internal  of  which  is  continuous  with  the  palatine  arches, 
— p,  pe.  palatine  teeth. — d.  the  poisonous  fangs. 

46.  What  are  Amphisbaenae  ?    ' 

47.  What  is  the  organization  of  the  head  in  the  genus  Tortrix  ? 

48.  What  peculiarities  in  the  structure  of  the  head  enable  certain  Serpents 
to  swallow  bodies  larger  than  themselves  ? 


56  STRUCTURE  OF  OPHIDIANS.— BOAS, ^ 

of  the  temporal  bone,  called  mastoid  bone,  (ma.)  which  is  also 
separate  from  the  cranium,  and  attached  to  this  bony  case  by 
ligaments  and  muscles  only  ;  the  branches  of  the  upper  jaw  are 
not  fixed  to  the  intermaxillary  bone  except  by  ligament,  which 
permits  them  to  separate  more  or  less;  the  palatine  arches  also 
participate  in  this  mobility.  Another  character,  peculiar  to  this 
group,  is  the  existence  of  sharp  teeth,  curved  backwards,  planted 
in  these  arches  as  well  as  in  the  upper  and  lower  jaws. 

49.  In  other  respects  the  armature  of  the  mouth  varies,  and 
these  differences  are  of  great  importance  ;  for  they  coincide  with 
the  existence  or  absence  of  an  apparatus  for  the  secretion  of  an 
active  poison,  which  the  animal  'uses  to  kill  the  prey  it  bites. 
Ordinary  serpents  are  therefore  divided  into  venomous  serpents, 
and  serpents  which  are  not  venomous. 

Fiq.  18.*  50.  The  NON-VENOMOUS  SERPENTS,  are  re- 

cognised by  their  teeth,  no  one  of  which  is 
moveable  or  hollowed  by  a  canal  or  gutter ; 
they  are  all  fixed,  and  they  form  in  the  mouth 
four  nearly  equal  ranges  above,  (Fig.  18.) 
and  two  below. 

5J.  Those  serpents  that  have  the  under 
part  of  the  body  and  tail  furnished  with  a 
single  band  of  transverse  scales  are  described 
under  the  name  of  Boas;  and  we  give  the 
collective  name  of  Colubers  to  those  in  which 
the  under  part  of  the  tail  is  covered  by  plates 
im  in  pairs,  divided  on  a  middle  line. 

52.  The  division  of  BOAS  is  composed   of  Boas  properly  so 
called,  of  Erix,  &c. 

53.  The  BOAS  PROPERLY  so  CALLED,  have  a  compressed  body, 
a  prehensile  tail,  a  hook  on  each  side  of  the  anus  and  small  scales 
on  the  back  of  the  head  at  least.     The  largest  serpents  known, 
belong  to  this  genus ;  certain  species  attain  thirty  and  even  forty 
feet   in  length,  and  manage  to  swallow  deer,  and,  as  we  are 
assured,  even  oxen.     They  are   unprovided   with   venom,   but, 

*  Exportation  of  Fig.  18. — The  bony  head  of  a  Non-venomous  Serpent 
seen  from  below  : — c.  the  cranium, — im.  the  intermaxillary  bone, — m.  the 
maxillary  bones, — p.  the  palatine  bones. 

49.  Is  the  mouth,  in  all  ordinary  Serpents,  armed  in  the  same  way  ?  How 
are  ordinary  Serpents  divided  ? 

50.  How  are  the  Non-venomons  Serpents  recognised? 

51.  What  are  Boas  ?     What  are  Colubers? 

52.  How  is  the  division  of  Boas  divided? 

53.  What  are  the  characters  of  Boas  properly  so  called  ?    What  are  their 
habits  ?  To  what  part  of  the  world  do  Boas  belong  ?  What  is  the  Divine  Boa? 


J30AS.-PYTIIONS.  57 


possessing  great  agility,  and  prodigious  strength,  they  are  not 
the  less  formidable.  Concealed  in  the  grass,  or  suspended  by 
its  tail  from  the  branches  of  a  tree  in  a  pathway,  or  on  the 
bank  of  a  rivulet,  the  Boa  watches  an  opportunity  of  seizing  its 
prey,  which  it  surrounds  in  its  folds,  and  presses  so  strongly, 
that  the  animal  is  soon  stifled,  and  its  bones  crushed.  When 
the  Serpent  has,  so  to  speak,  kneaded  its  victim,  it  bathes  it 
in  slaver,  and,  enormously  dilating  its  jaws,  slowly  swallows  it. 
We  are  assured,  that  several  days  are  required  to  swallow  an 
entire  animal,  eaten  in  this  way,  and  that  a  part  of  it  is 
already  digested  before  the  whole  has  entered  the  mouth  of  the 
reptile.  After  a  repast  of  this  kind,  Boas  remain  motionless  in 
some  retired  spot,  exhaling  a  foetid  odour.  It  is  then  easy  to  kill 
them,  and  it  appears,  their  flesh  is  not  a  disagreeable  aliment,  for 
certain  Indian  tribes  feed  upon  it.  During  a  very  long  time,  the 
greatest  confusion  pervaded  the  history  of  these  great  serpents, 
which  were  confounded  with  the  Pythons.  It  was  believed  they 
were  found  in  Africa  and  Asia,  as  well  as  in  America ;  but  it  now 
seems  to  be  certain,  that  they  are  peculiar  to  the  western  conti- 
nent. The  most  celebrated  species  owes  its  name  to  an  error  of 
this  kind.  It  was  called  the  Divine  Boa,  because  what  was  said 
of  certain  large  Colubers,  which  the  negroes  of  Mozambique 
make  objects  of  religious  worship,  was  attributed  to  it.  It  seems 
that  the  Brazilians  and  even  the  ancient  Mexicans,  rendered  it 
similar  honours.  This  enormous  reptile,  which  is  also  called  the 
Boa  Constrictor,  inhabits  the  warm  and  humid  parts  of  America ; 
its  head  is  covered  with  small  scales  to  the  end  of  the  muzzle,  and 
it  is  easily  recognised  by  a  sort  of  chain-links,  formed  along  the 
back,  of  hexagonal  blackish  spots,  and  others  of  a  yellowish  colour. 
Two  other  species,  which  inhabit  the  same  countries  attain  nearly 
the  same  size  :  the  Boa  anaconda,  and  the  Boa  aboma. 

54.  The  division  of  COLUBERS  includes  the  Pythons,  the  Colu- 
bers properly  so  called,  and  many  other  genera." 

55.  The  PYTHONS,  are,  as  it  were,  the  representatives   of  the 
Boas  in  the  old  world :  they  attain  the  same  gigantic  size,  and 
are  also  furnished  with  hooks  near  the  anus  :  they  have  narrow 
ventral  plates ;  but  those  beneath  the  tail  are  double  instead    of 
being  simple.     It  is  to  be  remarked,  however,  that  some  of  these 
serpents  have  the  first,  others  the  second  plates  of  the  tail  simple, 
which  seems  to  establish  a  gradual  passage  betwixt  these   two 
genera,  the  distinction  of  which,  in  other  respects,  is  founded  upon 
unimportant  particulars.     Be  it  as  it  may,  to  the  Pythons  must  be 
referred  all  that  has  been  said  of  the  Boas  of  Africa  and  Asia. 

54.  What  genera  are  included  in  the  division  of  Colubers  ? 

55.  What  are  Pythons  ?     What  are  their  characters  ? 


58 COLUBERS.— VENOMOUS  SERPENTS. 

56.  The  COLUBERS  PROPERLY  so  CALLED, — Coluber, — have  the 
head  covered  by  large  plates,  (Fig.  19.)  and  neither  fossettes  on 

Fig.  19.  tne  sides  of  the  muzzle,  nor  hooks  near  the 

anus.  The  number  of  these  Serpents  is 
immense;  the  most  common  in  France, 
(frig.  19.)  is  the  Ringed  Snake,—  Coluber 
natrix, — it  is  ash-coloured  with  black  spots 
along  the  flanks,  and  three  whitish  spots 
form  a  collar  around  the  neck.  Its  length 
is  about  three  feet ;  it  is  found  in  the  neigh- 
bourhood of  stagnant  waters.  It  swims 
with  ease,  and  lives  chiefly  on  insects,  mol- 
lusks,  and  frogs ;  it  does  not  attempt  to  bite, 
COLUBER.  except  when  very  much  irritated,  and  the 

wound  it  inflicts  is  by  no  means  dangerous.     It  is  eaten  in  many 

French  provinces.  / 

57.  VENOMOUS  SERPENTS  are  provided  with  a  particular  gland, 
situate  on  each  side  of  the  head,  which  pours  out  the  poison  that 
it  secretes,  by  an  excretory  duct,  the  extremity  of  which  empties 

into  one  of  the  maxillary  teeth 
of  the  upper  jaw.  This  gland, 
(Fig.  20,  g.)  is  placed  beneath 
the  temporal  muscles,  so  as  to  be 
compressed  when  they  contract, 
and  this  tooth  which  is  larger 
than  the  others,  is  sometimes  per- 
forated by  a  canal,  and  at  others, 
simply  has  a  gutter  on  one  side ; 

RATTLE  SNAKE.  but  in  either  case,  its  duct  is  in 

communication  with  the  excretory  canal  of  the  venomous  gland, 
and  serves  to  pour  the  poison  into  the  bottom  of  the  Wound  made 
by  the  tooth  itself.  This  liquid  is  a  most  violent  poison.  It  is 
neither  acrid  nor  burning,  and  only  produces  a  sensation  on  the 
tongue  analogous  to  that  occasioned  by  a  fatty  matter,  and  may 
be  swallowed  with  impunity ;  but,  introduced  into  a  wound,  in 
sufficient  quantity,  it  causes  death  with  frightful  rapidity. 

*  Explanation  of  Fig.  20. — Poison  apparatus  of  a  Rattlesnake  : — g.  the 
venomous  gland,  the  excretory  canal  of  which  empties  into  a  large  moveable 
tooth,  (c,) — m.  the  elevator  muscles  of  the  jaw  which  partly  cover  the  gland 
and  compress  it, — s.  salivary  glands  along  the  edge  of  the  jaws, — n.  the 
nostrils,  beneath  which  is  seen  the  fossette,  or  pit,  which  distinguishes  these 
serpents  and  trigonocephali  from  the  vipers. 

56.  What  are  the  characters  of  Colubers  properly  so  called  ?     What  are 
the  characters  of  the  Ringed  Snake  ?     What  are  its  habits  ? 

57.  What  peculiar  apparatus  distinguishes  the  venomous  Serpents  ?  What 
are  the  properties  of  their  venom  ? 


VENOMOUS  SERPENTS. 59 

58.  Its  energy  varies  according  to  the  species,  and  according 
to  the  condition  of  the  serpent.     The  same  species  seems  to  be 
more  dangerous  in  warm  than  in  cold  or  temperate  climates,  and 
the  effects  are  serious  in  proportion  to  the  quantity  of  poison 
poured  into  the  wound  :  these  animals  are  more  formidable  when 
they  have  fasted  for  sometime,  and  the  poison  has  accumulated  in 
considerable  quantity  in  the  glands  where  it  is  secreted,  than 
when  they  have  just  bitten  several  times,  and   only  a  small 
quantity  of  the  liquid  is  left.     It  is  remarked  also  that  their  poison 
does  not  act  in  the  same  manner  on  all  animals.     It  appears  that 
to  Leeches,  Snails,  the  Asp,  the  Coluber,  and  Angue,  the  venom 
of  the  Viper,  for  example,  is  not  poisonous,  while  it  kills  all  warm 
blooded  animals,  Lizards,  and  the  Viper  itself,  with  great  rapidity. 
In  general,  the  quantity  of  poison  necessary  to  cause   death  is, 
all  things  being  equal,  large  in  proportion  to  the  size  of  the 
animal  wounded  ;  thus,  when  the  hundredth  part  of  a   grain  of 
the  poison  of  a  Viper  is  sufficient  to  kill  a  Sparrow,   it   would 
require  six  times  as  much  to  kill  a  Pigeon. 

59.  This  poison,   to  act   on   the   animal  economy,  must  be 
absorbed  and  carried  into  the  circulation :  therefore,  in  cases  of 
bites  of  venomous  serpents,  we  should  hasten,    by   appropriate 
means,  to  prevent  this  absorption,  so  as  to  gain  time  to   extract 
or  destroy  the  poison,  deposited  at  the  bottom  of  the  wound. 
Compression  of 'the  veins  above  the  wound,  between  it  and  the 
heart,  and  the  application  of  a  cupping-glass  over  the  wound 
itself,  are  the  most  appropriate  means  of  retarding  the  absorption 
of  the  poison  ;  but,  to  remove  all  danger  completely,  we  should 
enlarge  the  wound,  and  cauterise  the  bottom  of  it,  either  with  a 
red  hot  iron,  or  with  some  energetic  caustic.     Several   internal 
remedies  have  been  much  vaunted,  such  as  Ammonia,  or  Vola- 
tile Alkali,  Arsenic,  &c.,  but  these   means,   though  sometimes 
useful,  should  not  inspire  great  confidence.     The  Indians  of  South 
America  attribute  still  greater  virtues  to  a  plant  of  that  country, 
known  under  the  name  of  Guaco,  or  fllicania  guaco;  they  assure 
us  that  not  only  the  application  of  the  leaves  of  the  Guaco  to  the 
bite  of  the  most  venomous  serpents  prevents  all  deleterious  effects, 
but  also  that  innoculation  with  the  juice  of  this   plant  prevents 
these  animals  from  biting  persons  so  prepared.     In  support  of 
this  opinion  the  observations  of  Vergas,  a  Spanish  author,  and 
of  Mutis  are  cited ;  and  the  celebrated   and  learned    traveller, 
Baron  Humboldt,  thinks,  according  to   some  experiments,  that 

58.  Is  the  venom  of  Serpents  equally  active  under  all  circumstances  ? 
When  is  it  most  to  be  dreaded  ? 

59.  What  is  the  hest  mode  of  treating  a  person  who  has  been  bitten  by  a 
poisonous  reptile  ? 


60 VENOMOUS  SERPENTS. 

the  Guaco  may  impart  to  the  skin  an  odour  which  is  repugnant 
to  the  serpent  and  prevent  it  from  biting. 

60.  SERPENTS  WITH  MOVEABLE,  VENOMOUS  FANGS,  are  the  most 
formidable.     The   fangs,   (Fig.  20,   c.)  situate   in  front  of  the 
mouth,  are  isolated,  very  sharp,  and  pierced  by  a   small  canal, 
which  opens  near  their  extremity ;  they  are  fixed  on  very  small 
maxillary  bones,  (Fig.  18,  im.)  and  these  bones  being  supported 
on  a  long  pedicle,  are  very  moveable,  so  that  when  the  animal  does 
not  wish  to  use  them,  they  are  folded  backwards,  and  lie  concealed 
in  a  fold  of  the  gum,  and  when  required  on  the  contrary,   they 
are  erected.     There  is  one  of  these  long  teeth  on  each  side,  and 
behind  each  one,  there  are  many  germs  to  replace  it,  in  the  event 
of  its  being  broken  in  a  wound ;  but  the   intermaxillary  bones 
support  no  other  teeth,  and,  consequently,  we  find  in  the  upper 
part  of  the  mouth,  only  two  rows  of  palatine  teeth,    instead   of 
four  rows,  as  in  Colubers. 

61.  The  head  of  these  serpents  is  generally  wide  behind,  and 
their  aspect  is  more  fierce  than  that  of  the  preceding.     They  are 
all  ova-viviparous,  that  is,  they  are  born  alive,  because  their  eggs 
are  hatched  before  they  are  laid.     Hence  the   name   of  Viper., 
which  is  a  contraction  of  viviparous,  is  given  to  most  of  them. 

62.  The  most  remarkable  genera  of  this  division  of  venomous 
Serpents,  are  the  Crotalus,  Triyonocephalus,  Viper,  and  ]\aja. 

Fig.  21.  63.  The  RATTLE  SNAKES, — Cro- 

talus, — owe  their  name  to  a  sin- 
gular apparatus  which  terminates 
the  tail,  and  which  distinguishes 
them  from  all  other  Ophidians.  It 
consists  of  a  series  of  horny 
scales,  loosely  fitting  into  each 
other  like  a  nest  of  boxes,  which 
move,  vibrate  and  sound,  when 
the  animal  moves  its  tail,  (Fig. 
21.)  The  number  of  these  scales 
increases  with  age ;  it  seems  there 
is  an  additional  one  after  each 
moult,  and  that  they  are  formed 
by  the  epidermis  of  the  Serpent, 
turned  upon  itself  like  the  finger 
of  a  glove,  and  retained  at  the 
extremity  of  the  tail.  This  in- 
strument vibrates  with  extreme 


RATTLE  SNAKE. 


60.  What  are  the  peculiarities  of  the  fangs,  in  venomous  Serpents  ? 

61.  What  is  the  origin  of  the  name  of  Viper? 

62.  What  are  the  chief  genera  of  the  division  of  venomous  Serpents  ? 

63.  What  peculiarity  gives  name  to  the  Rattle  Snake? 


VENOMOUS  SERPENTS. 


rapidity,  an  I  thus  produces  a  noise  sufficiently  loud  to  be  heard 
at  a  distance  of  several  fathoms. 

64.  Rattle  Snakes  attain  a  length  of  five  or  six  feet,  and  even 
more  :  they  inhabit  America,  and  are  celebrated  for  the  violence 
of  their  poison.     In  general,  they  do  not  bite  except  when  pro- 
voked, and  they  rarely  attack   animals  too   large  for  them   to 
swallow.    Notwithstanding  that  their  food  chiefly  consists  of  birds, 
squirrels,  &c.,  they  do  not  climb  upon  trees.   It  was  believed 
for  a  long  time  that  they  possessed  the  power  of  stupifying  their 
victims  by  their  breath,  or  even  charming  them  by  their  gaze, 
and  thus  forcing  them  to  enter  their  mouth  ;  but  it   is   only  the 
extreme  terror  they  inspire  in  small  animals,  which  confounds 
them  so  much  as  to  prevent  their  flight,  causing  them  to  perform 
irregular  movements,  and  even  to   fall  into  the  jaws  of  their 
enemy.     These    serpents    ordinarily    keep    themselves    coiled 
spirally,  near  a  watering-place,  frequented  by  small   mammals. 
There  they  tranquilly  wait,  until  some  victim  presents  itself,  and, 
when   within  reach,  they  spring  upon   it   with  the  rapidity  of 
lightning.     In   parts  of    North  America,  where   the   winter  is 
rigorous,  they  are  benumbed  during  winter,  and,  we  are  assured, 
that  during  the  cold  season,  their  bite  is  not   dangerous.     In 
Cayenne,  and  other  warm  countries,  they  are  never  benumbed. 
Negroes  eat  their  flesh. 

65.  Many  species  of  Rattle  Snake  are  known  :  most  of  them 
have  the  head  covered  with  scales  like  those  on  the   back  ;  that 
which  is  most  common  in  the  United   States,  is   brown,   with 
irregular,  transverse,  blackish  bands;  that  of  Guiana  has  lozenge 
shaped  spots,  bordered  with  black.     Both  are  about  six   feet  in 
length. 

66.  The  TRIGONOCEPHALI  are  distinguished  from  the  preceding 
by  the  absence  of  the  rattle  ;  but  like  them  they  have  the  fossette 
or  pit,  behind  the  nostrils.     Some   of  them   have   simple,   sub- 
caudal  plates,  like  the  Boas  and  Rattle  Snakes  ;  others  have  the 
tail  furnished  beneath  with  double  plates  like  the  Colubers,  and 
most  Vipers.     They  equal  the  Rattle  Snakes  in  the  violence   of 
their  poison,  and  most  of  them  inhabit  the   western   continent. 
The  most  celebrated  species  is  the  Yellow  Trigonocephaliis,  also 
called  the  Yellow  Snake  of  the  West  Indies,  and  Lance-headed 
Viper,  —  Trigouocephalus  lanceolatus.     This  reptile  is  very  com- 
mon in  Martinique  and  the  neighbouring  Islands.     It  lives  among 

64.  What  are  the  habits  of  the  Rattlesnake  ?     Where  are  Rattle  Snakes 
usually  met  with? 

65.  Is  there  more  than  one  species  of  the  Rattle  Snake  ? 

66.  How  are  the  Trigonocephali  distinguished  from  Rattle  Snakes?    What 
fc  the  Lance-headed  Viper  ?     Where  is  it  found  ?     What  are  its  habits  ? 

5 


VENOMOUS  SERPENTS. 


sugar-canes,  where  it  feeds  on  rats,  and  causes  the  death  of  many 
slaves.  Its  length  is  from  six  to  seven  feet,  and  it  is  extremely 
active;  it  climbs  the  highest  trees  in  pursuit  of  its  prey,  and 
springs  like  lightning,  not  only  on  birds  and  other  small  animals 
upon  which  it  ordinarily  feeds,  but  also  on  large  animals,  and 
even  on  man. 

67.  The  VIPERS, —  Vipera, — differ  from  the  venomous  serpents 
just  mentioned,  by  the  absence  of  the  pits  behind   the  nostrils. 
Fig.  22.  Many   of  them  have  been   frequently 

confounded  with  the  Colubers,  on 
account  of  their  double,  sub-caudal 
plates,  and  some  of  them  having  the 
head  furnished  with  large  plates  like 
the  latter;  but  most  all  Vipers  have 
the  head  covered  by  small  imbricated 
HKAD  OF  A  VIPER.  or  granular  scales,  (Fig.  22.)  The 

Common  Viper, —  Viper  a  benis, —  possesses  this  latter  character. 
It  rarely  exceeds  two  feet  in  length,  (Fig.  23.)  and  is  generally 
brown  with  a  double  row  of  transverse,  black  spots  along  the 
back,  and  another  row  upon  the  flank ;  but  fiym  23. 

these  spots  are  often  united,  forming  zig-zag 
bands.  One  of  'these  Vipers  is  sometimes 
named  the  Asp,  in  some  parts  of  France,  but 
it  should  not  be  confounded  with  the  true  Asp 
of  the  ancients.  It  inhabits  the  mountainous, 
stony  and  woody  districts  of  temperate  and 
Southern  Europe.  It  feeds  on  mice,  moles, 
young  birds,  reptiles,  and  even  insects  and 
worms.  During  the  cold  season,  these  reptiles 
remain  benumbed  in  holes,  where  several  are 
often  found  twined  together.  They  are  most 
frequently  seen  on  the  first  fine  days  of  spring, 
warming  themselves  in  the  sunshine  ;  but  when 
the  weather  becomes  very  hot,  they  are  rarely 
met.  They  produce  from  twelve  to  twenty-five  young  ones  at 
each  birth,  which  do  not  acquire  their  full  size  until  they  are  six 
or  seven  years  old.  Of  all  the  venomous  reptiles  of  Europe,  the 
common  Viper  is  the  most  dangerous ;  even  in  the  climate  of 
France,  its  bite  may  cause  the  death  of  a  man  in  a  few  hours, 
and  kill  small  animals  in  a  few  minutes.  The  quantity  of  poison 
it  generally  pours  into  a  wound  is  not  sufficient  to  be  fatal  to 
man. 


67.  How  are  Vipers  distinguished  from  the  venomous  Serpents  just  spoken 
of?    What  arc  the  characters  of  the  common  Viper?    What  are  its  habits? 


VENOMOUS  SERPENTS. 


63 


Fig.  24. 


68.  The  Little  Vipert—  Vipera  cfierscea, — which  is  common  in 
the  north  of  Europe,  and  which  is  also  found  in  the  Pyrennes, 
has  upon  the  head  three  plates  somewhat  larger  than  the  scales 
surrounding  them.     It  is  about  six  inches  long;  but  its  poison 
is  very  violent. 

69.  The  Vipera  illyrica,  inhabits  the  south  of  Europe,  and  is 
distinguished  from  the  common   Viper  by   a   small  soft   horn, 
covered  with  scales,  that  it  has  on  the  end  of  the  muzzle  ;  and 
the   Ht/rnetf    Viper, — Coluber   cerastes, — of  which    the  ancients 
often  speak,  is  recognised  by  a  small  horn   placed  on  each  eye- 
brow.    It  is  found  in  the  burning  sands  of  Egypt  and  Syria. 

70.  The  NAJA  resemble  the  V'ipers,  except  that  their   head  is 
always  furnished  with  plates, and  the  anterior  ribs  can  be  erected 
and  carried  forward,  so  as  to  dilate  this  part  of  the  trunk  into  a 
kind  of  disk,  which  is  more  or  less  wide,  (/%.  24.)    Two  species 
of  this  genus  are  known ;  the  Spectacle  Snake,  and  the  Asp  of 
Egypt.. 

71.  The  Spectacle  Snake,  (or 
Cobra  Capello  of  the  Portuguese 
in  India,) — Coluber  naja, —  owes 
its  name  to  a  black  line,  in  form 
of  a  pair  of  spectacles,  traced  upon 
the  extensible  part  of  its  neck.  Its 
length  is  about  four  feet ;  its  bite 
is  extremely  dangerous,  and  it  is 
very  fierce:  nevertheless,  Indian 
jugglers  teach  it  to  execute  cer- 
tain movements,  in  time,   to  the 
sound  of  a  flute,  and   employ   it 
to  astonish  the  public ;  to  increase 
the  sale  of  their  pretended  specific 
against  the  venom  of  this  reptile, 
they  permit  themselves  even  to  be 
bitten  by  the  serpent,  somewhat 
tamed,  however;  but  they   take 

the  precaution  previously  to  extract  its  poisonous  fangs. 

72.  The  Asp,  which   inhabits    Egypt, — Coluber   haje, — and 
which  is  about  two  feet  long,  is  also  employed  by  the  jugglers  of 
those  countries  to  amuse  the  public.     By  pressing  it   with  the 
fingers  on  the  back  of  the  neck,  they  cause  it  to  fall  into  a    sort 


COBRA  CAPELLO. 


68.  What  is  the  Little  Viper  ? 

69.  How  is  the  Horned  Viper  recognised  ? 

70.  What  are  the  characters  of  the  genus  Naja  ? 
11.  What  are  the  characters  of  the  Cobra  Capello? 

72.  What  are  the  peculiarities  of  the  Asp  of  Cleopatra  ? 


64 VENOMOUS  SERPENTS. 

of  catalepsy,  which  renders  it  stiff  and  immoveable,  as  if  they 
had  changed  it  into  a  rod  or  stick.  Its  poison  is  very  active,  and 
Galen  relates  that,  at  Alexandria,  they  resorted  to  the  bite  of 
this  serpent  to  abridge  the  punishment  of  criminals  condemned  to 
death.  It  is  unquestionably  the  Jl&p  of  Clenpatra.  The  ancient 
Egyptians  took  it  as  the  emblem  of  the  protecting  divinity  of  the 
world,  and  sculptured  it  on  their  monuments,  on  opposite  sides  of 
a  globe.  Its  habit  of  erecting  itself,  when  approached,  led  them 
to  believe  that  it  watched  the  fields  in  which  it  was  found. 

73.  Other  venomous  serpents  with  isolated  fangs,  called  ELAPS, 
have  a  mouth  that  is  hardly  dilatable ;  and  there  are   some,  in 
which  the  tail  is   compressed  in  the  form  of  a  paddle,  whose 
habits  are  aquatic.     They  form  the  genus  of  PLATURUS. 

74.  Among  the  VENOMOUS  SERPENTS  WITHOUT  ISOLATED  FANGS, 
there  are  some  which  are  scarcely  distinguishable  from  the  Colu- 
bers ;  their  mouth  is  furnished  above  with  four  rows  of  teeth  like 
the  non-venomous  serpents  without  there  being  perceived,  in  the 
place  ordinarily  occupied  by  the  fangs,  any  thing  of  a  nature  in- 
dicative of  the  existence  of  a  venomous  apparatus.     In  fact,  the 
excretory  canal  of  the  poisonous  gland,  in  them,  terminates  in 
one  of  the  last  maxillary  teeth,  which  is  somewhat  larger  than 
the   others,    and  simply  furrowed  by  a   gutter.     Some    of  the 
serpents  of  America  and  Africa  possess  this  kind  of  organization. 

75.  There  are  also  others   which,  with  the  armature   of  the 
mouth  very  nearly  like  the  last,  have  the  first  maxillary  tooth 
larger  than  the  others,  and  pierced,  like  the  moveable  fangs  above 
mentioned,  to  conduct  the  poison.     Some,  known  in  India  under 
the  name  of  Rock  Serpents,  have  simple  plates  under  the  belly 
and  tail,  and  constitute  the  genus  BUNGARUS.     The  others,  called 
HYDRUS,  have  the  posterior  part  of  the  body  and  tail  very  much 
compressed,  and  raised  vertically,  which  gives  them  facility  in 
swimming :  they  are  common  in  certain  parts  of  the  Indian  seas. 

73.  What  is  the  genus  Elaps  ?     What  is  the  genus  Platurus? 

74.  What  are  the  general  characters  of  Serpents  without  isolated  fangs  ? 

75.  What  are  the  characters  of  the  genus    Bungarus  ?    What  are  the 
characters  of  the  genus  Hydrus  ? 


BATRACHIANS.  63 


LESSON    IV. 

ORDER  OF    BATRACHIA. — Organization. —  Classification. 
FAMILY  OF  ANOURA. — Metamorphosis  oj  Tadpoles. —  Habits. — 

frays. — Tree-Froys. —  Toads. — Pipa. 
FAMILY  OF  URODELA. — Salamanders,  or   Water-Newts. 
FAMILY  OF  BRANCHIFERA. — AxolotL — Menobranc/ius.  —  Proteus. 

Streu. 
FAMILY  OF  APODA. — Ccecilia. 


ORDER   OF   BATRACHIANS. 


1.  The  name  Batrachian,  (from  the  Greek,   Batrachos,  frog,) 
is  given  to  all  reptiles  that  resemble  frogs  in  their  mode  of 'organi- 
zation.    This  fourth  and  last  division  of  the  Class  of  Reptiles, 
brings  us  into  the  neighbourhood  of  the  fishes ;  for  it  is  composed 
of  animals  that,  during  the  early  period  of  their  life,  respire   by 
branchias,  and  resemble  fishes  in  their  habits  and  form,  as  well  as 
in  their  mode  of  organization,  but  which,  with  the  advance  of  age, 
undergo  a  true  metamorphosis,  and  acquire  characters  common 
to  other  reptiles.     When  in  this  transitory  state,  they  are  called 
Tadpoles. 

2.  The  branchiae  of  young  Batrachians  are   placed   upon  the 
sides  of  the  neck,  and  are  sustained  by  the  lateral  prolongations 
of  a  cartilage  which  represents  the   hyoides.     Sometimes  they 
are  in  the   form  of  external   feathery  tufts,  which  float  in  the 
water ;  at  others,  they  consist  of  filaments  fixed  along  the  hyoid 
branches  just  mentioned,  and  covered  by  the   integuments.     In 
proportion  as  the  lungs  become  developed,  in  general,  the  bran- 
chiae wither,  and  at  last  entirely  disappear ;  but  this  is  not  always 
the  case,  and,  in  some  reptiles,  they  remain  throughout  life,  con- 
jointly with  the  lungs. 

1.  What  kind  of  animals  form  the  order  of  Batrachians?  What  are  Tadpoles? 

2.  What  is  the  situation  of  the  Branchiae  in  young  Batrachians  ?     What 
is  their  form  ?     Do  they  always  exist  throughout  the  life  of  the  animal  ? 

5* 


fifi 


CIRCULATION  OF  BATRACHIANS. 


Fig.  26. 


I.  tot 


bri. 


b     3.  a 


ap   av 

CIRCULATION   OF   A   TADPOLE. 

Explanation  of  Fig.  26— Principal  blood  vessels  of  the  Tadpole  of  the  Sala- 
mander: — a.  the  artery  which  arises  from  the  only  ventricle  of  the  heart; 
it  divides  into  six  branches  which  go  to  the  three  pairs  of  branchiae,  and 
there  ramify  ;  (they  are  called  branchial  arteries,  ab.;} — br.  the  branchiae,  in 
which  we  see  the  distribution  of  the  branchial  arteries,  and  the  origin  of  the 
branchial  veins,  (vh.)  which  receive  the  blood  after  it  has  passed  through 
the  lamellae  of  the  branchiae  ;  those  of  the  two  last  pairs  of  branchiae  unite 
on  each  side  to  form  a  vessel,  (c.)  which,  by  uniting  with  its  fellow  on  the 
opposite  side,  forms  the  ventral  aorta  or  dorsal  vessel,  (av.}  which  is  directed 
backwards,  and  distributes  the  blood  to  most  of  the  body  ;  the  branchial  vein 
of  the  first  pair  of  branchiae  is  bent  forwards,  and  carries  the  blood  towards 
the  head,  (£,£.) ; — 1.  an  extremely  small  anastomosing  branch,  which  unites! 
the  branchial  artery  and  vein,  at  the  base  of  the  first  branchiae,  and  which, 
by  afterwards  becoming  larger,  permits  the  blood  to  pass  from  the  first  of 
these  vessels  into  the  second,  without  passing  through  the  branchiae  ; — 2.  a 
small  anastomosing  branch  which,  in  the  same  manner,  establishes  a  com- 
munication, between  the  artery  and  vein  of  the  second  pair  of  branchial ; — 
3,  a  vessel,  which,  by  a  filament  situate  further  in,  also  joins  together  the 
artery  and  vein  of  the  posterior  branchiae ; — o.  the  orbital  artery ; — ap.  the 
rudimental  pulmonary  arteries. 

Fig.  27.       '        * 


CIRCULATION    OF   A   TADPOLE,    IN  THE    PROGRESS    OF   METAMORPHOSIS. 

Explanation  of  Fig,  27. — The  same  parts  in  a  Tadpole  in  which  the 
branchiae  begin  to  lose  their  importance  in  respiration,  and  in  which  a  part 
of  the  blood  goes  from  the  heart  to  different  parts  of  the  body  without  pass- 


CIRCULATION  OF  BATRACHIANS. 


67 


3.  The  apparatus  of  the  circulation  undergoes  changes  cor- 
responding to  those  experienced  by  the  organs  of  respiration. 
The  heart  of  Batrachians,  like  that  of  most  reptiles,  is  composed 
of  two  auricles  and  a  single  ventricle,  from  which  arises  a  great 
artery ;  at  its  base,  this  artery  is  swelled  into  a  contractile  bulb, 
and  soon  after  bifurcates.  When  the  animal  breathes  by  bran- 
chiae alone,  the  blood,  forced  by  the  ventricle,  is  distributed  to 
these  organs,  from  which  the  greater  part  of  it,  goes  to  the 
dorsal  artery,  the  branches  of  which  ramify  in  the  various 
organs.  In  fishes  this  liquid  follows  the  same  course.  But  when 
the  lungs  are  developed,  the  disposition  of  the  circulatory  apparatus 
changes :  there  is  established  a  direct  communication  between  the 
vessels  which  carry  the 
blood  to  the  branchiae, 
and  those  that  receive  it 
from  those  organs,  so  that 
it  is  not  necessary  for  this 
liquid  to  pass  through  the 
respiratory  apparatus  to 
reach  the  dorsal  artery, 
and,  through  it,  the  dif- 


fer 1. 


&r2 


Fig.  28' 


6r3. 


3. 


ap 


ap 


av 


ferent  parts  of  the  body. 
The  artery,  (Fig.  28,  a.) 
which  arises  from  the  ven- 
tricle, and  which  could  be 
compared  at  first  to    a 
branchial  artery,  then  be- 
comes   the  origin  of  the        CIRCULATION  IN  A  PERFECT  BATRACHIAN. 
dorsal  vessel,  and  with  it  constitutes  a  true  aorta,  certain  branches 
of  which,  that  go  to  the  lungs,  are  developed  at  the  same  time, 

ing  through  these  organs ;  the  same  letters  indicate  the  same  vessels  as  in 
the  preceding  figure,  and  it  will  be  observed  that  the  anastomosing  branches, 
(1.  2.  3.)  which,  in  the  Tadpole,  were  capillary,  and  did  not  give  passage  to 
a  very  considerable  quantity  of  blood,  are  here  of  some  size,  and  that  they 
seem  to  be  continuous  with  the  branchial  vessels  rather  than  with  the  arte- 
ries coming  from  the  heart.  The  pulmonary  arteries  are  also  much  developed. 
* Explanation  of  Fig. 28.— The  same  parts  in  the  perfect  animal,  indicated 
by  the  same  letters  as  in  Figs.  26.  and  27.  Here  the  vessels  of  the  branchiae 
have  become  rudimentary,  and  the  pulmonary  arteries  much  developed  ;  the 
vessels  which  convey  the  blood  to  the  middle  branchiae  are  continuous,  without 
interruption,  with  those  (c.)  that  receive  this  liquid  after  its  passage  through 
these  organs,  and  thus  form  an  aortic  cross,  on  each  side  of  the  heart. 

3.  What  are  the  characters  of  the  heart  in  Batrachians  ?  What  are  the 
peculiarities  of  the  circulation  in  Batrachians  ?  In  what  respect  does  the 
circulation  of  Batrachians  differ  from  that  of  fishes  ?  Does  the  aorta  in 
Batrachians  circulate  pure  arterial  blood  ? 


68 


DIVISION  OF  BATRACHIANS. 


SKELETON    OF    A   FROG. 


and  establish  a  pulmonary  circulation.  Finally,  the  branchial 
vessels  are  obliterated,  and  then  the  circulation  is  carried  on 
nearly  in  the  same  manner  as  it  is  in  other  reptiles.  The  venous 
blood,  returning  from  all  parts  of  the  body,  is  poured  into  the 
ventricle  by  one  of  the  auricles,  and  there  mixed  with  the  arterial 
blood,  coming  from  the  lungs  and  poured  into  the  same  ventricle, 
by  the  other  auricle.  This  mixture  enters  the  aorta;  a  small 
portion  goes  to  the  lungs,  but  the  largest  part  is  distributed  to 
the  different  organs  of  the  animal. 

4.  The  skeleton  of  Batrachians  presents  remarkable  peculiari- 
ties ;  in  general,  the  ribs  are  entirely  wanting,  or  are   merely 
rudimentary,  for  which  reason  pulmonary  respiration  cannot  be 

carried    on    by     the 

Fig.  29.  ordinary  mechanism  ; 

and  in  fact,  the  ani- 
mal introduces  air 
into  its  lungs  by  a 
species  of  deglutition. 
It  is  to  be  observed, 
also,  that  the  skin  of 
these  reptiles  is  not 
covered  with  scales 
like  that  of  Saurians, 
Ophidians,  and  most  Chelonians,  but  is  naked.  Almost  all  Batra- 
chians are  without  nails.  Their  eggs  are  enveloped  only  in  a 
gelatinous  mass  which  swells  very  much  in  water,  and  they  are 
not  generally  fecundated  until  after  they  are  laid. 

5.  This  order  is  divided  into  four  families,  namely : 
1st.  The  ANOURA,  which,  in  their  perfect  state,  have  no  tail, 
and  do  not  preserve  their  branchias,  and  are  provided  with  four 
extremities. 

2nd.  The  URODELA,  which  also  lose  their  branchia?,  and  acquire 
extremities,  but  preserve  the  tail. 

3rd.  The  BRANCHIFERA,  which  always  preserve  their  branchiae  ; 
they  resemble  those  Urodela  in  which  developement  had  been 
arrested  while  yet  in  the  tadpole  state. 

4th.  The  APODA,  or  CECILIA,  which  also  lose  their  branchiaB,  but 
never  acquire  extremities  :  until  lately  they  were  classed  amongst 
the  Ophidians,  under  the  name  of  Naked  Serpents,  or  Nuda.  ° 

4.  What  are  the  peculiarities  of  the  skeleton  of  Batrachians  ?  What 
is  the  character  of  their  skin  ? 

5.  How  is  the  order  of  Batrachia  divided  ?     What  are  the   characters  of 
the  family  of  Anoura,  when  perfect?     What   are   the   characters  of  the 
family  of  Urodela  when  perfect?     How   is   the  family   of  Apoda   charac- 
terised ?     What  are  naked  serpents  ?    What  are  the   characters  of  the 
family  of  Branchifera  ? 


METAMORPHOSIS  OF  TADPOLES. 


FAMILY  OF  ANOURA. 

6  This  family  is  composed  of  frogs,  toads,  and  some  other 
reptiles  having  nearly  the  same  form.  In  them  the  metamor- 
phosis is  more  complete  than  in  all  other  animals  of  this  order. 
When  the  young  tadpole  first  leaves  the  egg,  it  resembles  a 
little  fish,  and  can  live  only  in  water.  Its  head  is  very  large,  its 
belly  protuberant,  and  its  body  unprovided  with  extremities,  is 
terminated  by  a  compressed  tail,  which  afterwards  becomes 
elongated,  and  much  raised :  its  mouth  is  still  a  small,  scarcely 
perceptible  hole,  and  its  branchiae  consist  only  of  a  tubercle 
placed  on  each  side  of  the  posterior  part  of  the  head.  p.  on 
These  appendages  very  soon  become  lengthened,  and  l^'  *" 
are  divided  into  shreds,  ( Fig.  30.) ;  the  eyes  are  percepti- 
ble through  the  skin,  and  a  transverse  slit  appears  under 
the  neck,  so  as  to  form  a  sort  of  membranous  operculum. 
A  little  later,  (Fig.  23,  Page.  67.)  the  branchiae  become 
ramified,  and  the  lips  are  covered  by  a  sort  of  horny 
beak,  by  the  aid  of  which  the  animal  fixes  itself  to  vege- 
tables, that  form  its  chief  food ;  but  this  state  does  not  T 
last  long.  At  the  end  of  a  few  days  the  branchial  fringes,  which 
float  on  each  side  of  the  neck,  disappear,  (Fig.  31.)  and  respira- 
Fig.  31.  tionis  carried  on  by  the  assistance  of  small 

vascular  tufts,  placed  along  four  cartilaginous 
arches,  situate  under  the  throat,  and  pertain- 
TADPOLE.  ing  to  the  hyoid  bone.     A  membranous  tuu.c, 

covered  by  the  skin,  envelopes  these  internal  branchiae,  to  which 
the  water  arrives  by  the  mouth,  passing  through  the  intervals  of 
the  arches  of  the  hyoid  bone ;  finally,  after  having  laved  these 
organs,  this  liquid  escapes  by  one  or  two  external  slits,  the  situation 
of  which  varies  a  little  according  to  the  species.  The  respiratory 
apparatus,  then,  as  we  have  said  above,  exactly  resembles  that 
of  fishes.  Sometime  after- 


wards, the  posterior  extremi- 
ties of  the  Tadpole  show 
themselves,  and  are  developed 
little  by  little,  (Fig.  32.) ;  they 
attain  considerable  length  be- 
fore the  anterior  extremities 
are  perceived.  The  latter  are 
developed  beneath  the  skin, 
which  they  penetrate  at  a  later 
period,  (Fig.  33.)  About  the 


Fig.  32. 


6.  What  reptiles  compose  the  family  of  Anoura  ?     What  changes  do  the 
animals  of  this  family  undergo  in  early  life  ?     What  is  a  Tadpole  ? 


70 FAMILY  OF  ANOURA. 

same  time,  the  horny  beak  falls  off,  leaving  the 
jaws  unencumbered ;  the  tail  begins  to  waste 
away,  (Fig.  34.)  the  lungs  are  developed,  and, 
in  proportion  as  these  organs  become  more  ex- 
clusively the  seat  of  respiration,  the  branchise 
fade  and  disappear;  the  cartilaginous  arches 
which  supported  them  are  also  in  part  absorbed  ; 
Fig,  35.  arjd  finally  the  tail  entirely  disappears.  The 
little  animal  assumes  the  form  which  it  preserves 
through  life,  and  completely  changes  its  regimen, 
(Fi(j.  35.)  From  being  at  first  herbivorous,  it 
gradually  becomes  exclusively  carnivorous,  and 
in  proportion  as  this-  metamorphosis  advances, 
FROG.  the  intestinal  canal,  from  being  long,  slender,  and 

spirally  folded,  becomes  short,  almost  straight  and  swelled,  to 

form  the  stomach  and  colon. 

7.  The  period  of  these  changes  varies,  from  about  four  to  eight 
weeks,  according  to  the  species,  and  it  has  been  ascertained  that 
different  circumstances  may  considerably  hasten  or  retard,  the 
complete  metamorphosis  of  the  young  animal.     A  deficiency  of 
heat  and  light,  very  much  prolongs  the  duration  of  the  tadpole 
state. 

8.  Having  reached  their  perfect  state,  the  Anoura  cease  to  be 
aquatic  animals;  but  most  of  them  continue  to  live  in  the  neigh- 
bourhood of  water  and  dive  frequently  in  it.    They  cannot  remain, 
during  the  warm  season,  constantly  in  the  water,  even  though 
they  come  freely  to  the  surface  to  breathe  the   air ;  pulmonary 
respiration  is  not  then  sufficient  for  them,  and  they  require  the 
action  of  the  air  on  the  skin ;  in  winter,  however,  this  cutaneous 
respiration  is  not  only  sufficient  to  sustain  life,  but  they  can 
remain  several  months  in  the  water  without  coming  into  the  air. 

9.  All  these  reptiles  have  a  thick-set  body,  a  flat  head,  the 
muzzle  more  or  less  rounded,  a  very  wide  mouth,  short  fore  feet 
terminated  by  four  toes,  and  the  hind  feet  are  longer,  and  some- 
times possess  the  rudiment  of  a  sixth  toe.     Their  eyes  are  ordi- 
narily furnished  with  three  lids,  but  sink  into  the  head,  on  slight 
pressure;  because  the  orbits  art  separated  from  the  mouth  only 
by  membranes.     A  cartilaginous  plate  occupies  the   place  of  a 
tympanum,  and  causes  the  ear  to  show  externally.     The  tongue 

7.  Is  the  time  occupied  in  these  changes  the  same  in  all  species  of  Anoura? 
What  circumstance  influences  the  time  occupied  in  the  metamorphosis  ? 

8.  What  are  the  habits  of  the  Anoura?     Is  respiration  carried  on  exclu- 
sively by  the  lungs  ? 

9.  What  are  the  general  characters  of  the  Anoura  ?  How  do  they  breathe  ? 
What  is  peculiar  about  the  tongue? 


FROGS.— TREE-FROGS. 71 

is  generally  soft,  and,  contrary  to  what  we  see  in  most  mammals, 
it  is  fixed  to  the  edge  of  the  jaw  only  by  its  anterior  extremity, 
so  that  it  can  be  folded  backwards,  or  turned  out  of  the  mouth. 
Finally,  the  skeleton  of  these  reptiles  (Fig.  29,  Page  58.)  is  entirely 
unprovided  with  ribs,  and  the  inspiration  of  air  can  be  effected  only 
by  a  movement  analogous  to  that  of  deglutition,  in  which  the 
animal  dilates  the  'throat  to  fill  it  with  air ;  then,  closing  the  poste- 
rior nostrils  with  the  tongue,  contracts  the  muscles  of  the  swallow, 
and  forces  this  fluid  to  enter  the  lungs:  to  throw  one  of  these 
animals  into  a  state  of  asphyxia,  it  is  only  necessary  to  keep  the 
mouth  open  for  a  certain  time. 

10.  The  FROGS, —  flana,— have  the  body  more  tapering  than 
the  other  Anoura;  the  hind  feet  are  very  long,  very  strong,  and 
more  or  less  palmate,  which  enables  them  to  swim  and  leap  well. 
The  skin  is  smooth,  and  the  males  have  on  each  side  of  the  neck, 
beneath  the  ears,  a  thin  membrane  which  becomes  inflated,  when 
they  croak.     They  are  distinguishable  from  toads  by  a  row  of 
very  fine,  small  teeth,  all  around  the  upper  jaw.     These  reptiles 
ordinarily  keep  on  the  banks  of  ponds  and  rivulets,  and  precipi- 
tate themselves  into  the  water  on  the  slightest  danger :  they  feed 
only  on  living  prey,  and  eat  the  larva  of  aquatic  insects,  worms, 
small  mollusks,  and  flies.     In  winter  they  bury  themselves  in  the 
mud,  or  in  holes,  and  do  not  eat. 

1 1 .  We  give  the  name  of  TREE-FROGS, — Hyla, — to  Batrachians 
which  do  not  differ  much  from  frogs,  except  that  the  extremity  of 
each  one  of  the  toes  is  enlarged,  and  rounded  into  a  sort  of  viscous 
pellet  or  ball,  (/%.  36.)  that       p. 

enables  them  to  adhere  to 
bodies  upon  which  they 
climb,  and  to  ascend  trees. 
Endowed  with  great  sup- 
pleness and  agility,  Tree- 
frogs  travel  very  lightly 
on  the  most  flexible  bran- 
ches. During  the  whole 
summer  they  live,  in  this 
manner,  on  trees,  pursuing 
insects ;  but  in  winter  they 
retire  to  the  bottom  of  the  COMMON  TREE-FROG. 

water  like  frogs,  and  do  not  return  again  to  the  humid  woods  in 
the  spring,  till  after  they  have  deposited  their  eggs.    The  common 

10.  What  are  the -general  characters  of  Frogs?     How  are  they    distin- 
guished from  Toads  ?     What  are  the  habits  of  Frogs  ? 

11.  What  are  Tree-Frogs  ?     What  are  their  habits  ? 


73  TOADS. 


Tree-frog, — Rana  arborea, — is  of  an  apple  green  above,  and  pale 
beneath,  with  a  black  and  yellow  line  along  each  side  of  the  body. 

12.  The  TOADS, — Bufo, —  have  a  thick-set  body,  covered  with 
warts,  or  papillae,  from  which  exudes  a  viscid  humor ;  on  each 
side  of  the  neck  there  is  a  large,  projecting  gland,  (called  parotid,) 
full  of  pores,  which  secretes  an  acrid  humor.     Their   hind   legs 
are  not  so  much  elongated  as  those  of  frogs,  and  they  leap  badly ; 
in  general  they  creep  rather  than  walk,  and,  when  surprised, 
instead  of  taking  to  flight,  they  stop  suddenly  and  inflate   the 
body  so  as  to  render  it  hard  and  elastic,  and  cause  the  skin   to 
pour  out  a  white  humor ;  sometimes  they  endeavour  to  defend 
themselves  by  biting ;  but  their  mouth  is  unprovided  with  teeth, 
and  their  bite  is  not  venomous,  as  is  generally  supposed  in  the 
country.     These  hideous  and  disgusting  reptiles  ordinarily  con- 
ceal themselves  in  shady,  humid  places,  from  which  they  do  not 
go  out,  except  at  night,  or  immediately  after  the  warm  and  abun- 
dant rains  of  summer.     Like  frogs,  they  feed  on  small  mollusks, 
worms,  and  living  insects,  but  they  are  more  terrestrial  in  their 
habits ;  they  betake  themselves,  in  summer  only,  to  pools  and 
streams,  where  the   females  resort   to   deposit  their  eggs.     In 
countries  where  the  winter  is  cold,  they  pass  the  season  benumbed 
in  holes.      Their  respiration  then   becomes    extremely  limited, 
and  the  contact  of  a  very  small  quantity  of  air  with  the  skin  is 
sufficient  to  maintain  their  existence.     When  placed  in  situations 
where  ordinary  evaporation  is  very  inconsiderable,  they  can  live 
in  this  way  for  a  very  long  time.     This  explains  how  it  is  that 
toads,  which  have  been  enclosed  in  plaster,  or  shut  up  in  holes, 
excavated  in  stones,  are  often  found  alive,  after   being  many 
months  in  confinement. 

13.  Curious  experiments  have  been  made  with  a  view  of  ascer- 
taining  the  fact,  (which  had  been  often  observed,  but   generally 
treated   as  fabulous   by  naturalists,)  of  the  existence  of  living 
toads  in  walls,  in  hollow  trees,  and  even  in  the  interior  of  rocks, 
where  they  had  probably  remained  for  years,  without  being  able 
to   escape.     Labourers   who  work  in  quarries  have  often  met 
similar  instances,  on  breaking  blocks  of  stone,  and  they  pretend 
that  the  toad  is  found  enclosed  in  the  stone  on  all  sides,  as  in  a  solid 
mould,  which  would  lead  us  to  suppose  that  it  had  formed  around 
the  body,  and  that  the  seclusion  of  the  reptile  dated  from  a  very 
remote  antiquity;  but  this  opinion  is  inadmissible,   and   every 

12.  What  are  the  characters  of  Toads  ?     How   are  they  distinguished 
from  Frogs  ?     What  are  their  habits  ? 

13.  How  is  it  that  Toads  are  enabled  to  exist,  excluded  from  the  atmos- 
pheric air,  shut  up  in  rocks,  hollow  tree?,  &c.? 


PIPAS.— URODELA. 


73 


thing  leads  us  to  believe,  that  in  such  cases,  the  retreat  of  the 
toad  communicates  externally  by  some  hole  which  had  been 
accidentally  closed,  or  had  escaped  observation. 

14.  The  PIPAS  are  still  more  hideous  than  the  toads :  their  body 
is  more  flattened,  the  head  triangular,  their  eyes  very  small,  their 
hind  legs  short,  and  their  anterior  toes  split  at  the  end  into  three 
or  four  small  points;  the  tongue  is  entirely  wanting.  The  species 
best  known,  which  inhabits  the  warm  and  humid  parts  of  South 
America,  is  celebrated  on  account  of  the  manner  in  which  its 


Fig.  37 


young  are  developed.  The  male  places  the  eggs  on  the  back  of 
the  female,  who  immediately  takes  to  the  water,  where  the  skin, 
irritated  by  the  contact  of  these  bodies,  swells,  and  forms  cells, 
in  which  the  young  are  hatched,  and  remain  until  they  have 
completed  their  metamorphosis ;  then  the  mother  returns  to  land. 

FAMILY  OF  URODELA. 

15.  The  metamorphosis  of  Batrachians  of  this  family  is  less 
complete  ;  for,  in  the  perfect  state,  they  still  preserve  the  long 
tail,  which,  in  the  preceding  family,  only  exists  in  the  tadpole. 
At  the  time  of  escaping  from  the  egg,  they  are  without  feet,  and 
respire  by  branchiae,  which  are  in  the  form  of  tufts,  and  three  in 
number ;  they  are  placed  on  each  side  of  the  neck,  and  float 
externally.  As  in  the  Anoura,  their  extremities  appear  succes^ 
sively,  but  the  fore  feet  make  their  appearance  before  the  poste- 
rior ;  and,  to  complete  the  transformation  of  the  tadpole,  the 
lungs  are  developed,  and  the  branchiae  disappear.  In  the  adult 
state,  these  animals  have  nearly  the  same  form  as  lizards ;  but 
their  head  is  flattened,  and  we  do  not  perceive  the  tympanum 

14.  What  are  the  characters  of  Pipas  ? 

15.  What  are  the  characters  of  the  family  of  Urodela  ? 

6 


74 TRITONS.— -SALAMANDERS. 

externally.  Both  jaws,  and  the  palate  are  armed  with  small  teeth  ; 
their  tongue  is  placed  as  it  is  in  frogs ;  the  skeleton  has  rudimen- 
tary ribs;  and  the  number  of  their  toes  is  four  in  front,  and 
almost  always  five  behind.  Some  authors  designate  these  animals 
under  the  name  of  Salamanders. 

16.  TRITONS,  or  Aquatic  Salamanders,  are  the  most  common 
batrachians  of  the  family  of  Urodela;  they   always   preserve  a 
laterally  compressed  tail,  (Fig.  38.)  and  pass  nearly  all  their  time 

^,.     0~  in   the   water.     The 

most  remarkable  fac- 
ulty possessed  by 
these  reptiles,  is  the 
astonishing  facility, 
with  which  they  re- 
pair any  mutilation 
CRESTED  SALAMANDER,  OR  TRITON.  (O  which  they  may 

be  subjected.  They  not  only  replace  the  tail  after  it  has  been 
cut  off,  as  is  the  case  also  with  lizards,  but  their  extremities  are 
reproduced  in  the  same  manner.  The  same  extremity,  after 
having  been  cut  off,  has  been  reproduced  entire  with  its  bones, 
its  muscles,  its  vessels  and  nerves,  several  times  in  succession, 
and  we  are  even  assured  that,  in  one  experiment,  the  eye,  after 
having  been  extirpated,  was  reproduced  in  the  space  of  a  year. 

17.  Several  species  are  found  in  the  neighbourhood  of  Paris. 
Sometimes  the  tadpoles  become  very  large  before  losing  their 
branchiae     A  fossil,  found  in  the  schists  of  (Eningen,  and   be- 
longing to  a  large  species  of  Salamander,   has   excited   a   good 
deal  of  interest;  because,  from  a  singular  error,  it  was  for  a  long 
time  regarded  as  the  skeleton  of  a  fossil  man. 

18.  SALAMANDERS  PROPERLY  so  CALLED,  or  TERRESTRIAL  SALA- 
MAMJERS  in  the  perfect  state,  have  a  round  tail,  and  only  remain 
in  the  water  during  their  tadpole  existence,  or  when   they   lay. 
Their  eggs  are  hatched  before  they  are  laid,  and   the  young  at 
first  have  a  compressed  tail  like  ordinary  tadpoles;  they  lose  the 
tail,  and  finish  their  metamorphosis  very  promptly.    In  the  perfect 
state,  they  inhabit  shady,  humid  situations :  they  are  ordinarily 
found  under  stones,  or  in  subterraneous  holes.     It  was  for  a  long 
time  believed  that  Salamanders  had  the  power   of  resisting  the 
action  of  fire ;  but  this  fable  was  without   foundation  ;  except, 
perhaps,  that  when  the  reptile  is   irritated,   it  sweats   a  milky 

16.  What  are  Tritons?     For  what  are  they  remarkable? 

17.  What  led  to  the  belief  that  a  fossil  man  had  been  discovered? 

18.  What  are  Salamanders  properly  so  called  ?     How    are    they    distin 
guished  from  Tritons  ? 


BRANCHIFERA.— AXOLOTLS. 75 

humor.  This  humor  appears  to  be  poisonous  to  feeble  animals; 
but  the  Salamander  is  not,  as  is  supposed  among  certain  country 
people,  an  injurious  animal. 

19.  There  has  been  discovered  in  America,  a  large  batrachian, 
of  the  precise  form  of  the  Salamander,  that  has  an  orifice  on  each 
side  of  the  neck,  but  which,  it  is  supposed,  never  has  branchiae.    It 
is  probable,  however,that  these  organs  do  exist  in  the  first  periods 
of  life,  but  disappear  at  an  early  date,  as  is  the  case  in  the  terres- 
trial Salamander.  These  reptiles,  which  form  the  genus  MENOPOMA, 
inhabit  the  great  lakes  and  rivers  in  the  interior  of  South  America, 
The  AMPHIUMA,  which  inhabit  the  same  continent,   possess   the 
same  mode  of  organization  ;  but  their  body  is  excessively  elon- 
gated, and  their  extremities  are  but  little  developed.     The  number 
of  their  toes  varies  from  two  to  three,  according  to  the  species. 

FAMILY  OF  BRANCHIFERA. 

20.  This  family  is  composed  of  batrachians  that  always   pre- 
serve their  branchiae,  and  resemble  the  tadpoles  of  batrachians 
of  the  family  of  Urodela ;  they  have  been  regarded   for  a   long 
time  as  being  in  fact,  the  young  of  some  large  species   of  Sala- 
mander ;  but  now,  there  is  no  doubt  of  their  being  perfect  ani- 
mals, and  what  is  very  remarkable,  that  possessing  well  developed 
branchiae,  they  also  have  lungs,  and  are  consequently  completely 
amphibious.     These  branchiae,  which  are  placed  in  the  ordinary 
situation,  have  the  form  of  tufts  more  or  less  ramified,  and  float 
externally  in  the  water.     The  lungs  are  sometimes  provided  with 
a  vascular  net  work  as  well  developed  as  in  any  reptile,  while  in 
others,  their  structure  is  very  simple.     The  body  of  these  animals 
terminates  in  a  long,  vertical  tail ;  and  their  extremities  are  but 
little  developed,  and  often  are  partly  wanting.     Four  genera  are 
known,  namely ;  the  rfxolotus,  the  Menobranchus,  the  Proteus, 
and  the  Siren. 

21.  The  AXOLOTLS, —  JlxolotMs, — in  every    respect   resemble 
the  tadpoles  of  Salamanders, 

that  have  acquired  their  fore 
paws.  Only  a  single  species 
has  yet  been  discovered,  the 
rfxolotl  of  the  Mexicans, — 
Siren  pisciformis,  (Fig.  39.) 
which  inhabits  the  lake  in  the 
midst  of  which*  stands  the 
city  of  Mexico.  AXOLOTL. 

19.  What  are  Monoporaa  ?    What  are  Amphiuma  ? 

20.  What  are  Brauchifera?     What  are  their  general  characters  ?     What 
are  the  genera  of  this  family  ? 

21.  What  are  the  characters  of  the  Axolotls  ? 


76 PROTE A  NS.— SIR  ENS.—  A  PO  DA. 

Fiy.  40.  22.  The  MENOBRANCHUS,  also  have  four  feet ;  but  in- 
stead of  having  four  toes  before,  and  five  behind,  they 
Phave  only  four  throughout. 
23.  The  PROTEANS,—  Proteus,— have  but  three  toes  in 
front  and  two  behind  The  only  species  known,  — 
Proteus  angnhliis, — (Fig.  40.)  more  than  a  foot  long,  and 
only  as  thick  as  the  finger,  is  found  in  the  subter- 
raneous waters  of  some  of  the  caverns  of  Carniole.  Its 
skin  is  smooth  and  whitish,  its  muzzle  is  elongated  and 
depressed,  and  its  eyes  are  exceedingly  small,  and  con- 
~j  cealed  beneath  the  integuments. 

24.  The  SIRENS,  have  anterior  extremities  only,  and, 
in  the  elongated  form  of  their  body,  resemble  eels. 
Three  species  are  known,  one  of  which  attains  three 
feet  in  length,  and  inhabits  the  marshes  of  Carolina. 

FAMILY  OF  APODA. 

JL'KU  1  li.UH. 

25.  The  APODA,  or  CECILIA,  as  we  have  already   stated,   are 
entirely  without  extremities,  and,  until  lately,  have  been  regarded 
as  Serpents ;  but  it  has  been  ascertained  that,  in  early  life,  they 
have  branchiae  which  show  themselves  through  a  hole  on  each 
side  of  the  neck.     In  the  adult  animal  we  find  even  the  arches  of 
the  hyoid  bone,  which  served  to  sustain  these  organs.     The  body 
is  very  nearly  cylindrical.     The  skin  is  smooth  and  transversely 
furrowed  by  annular  wrinkles.     At  first  sight,  it  appears   to   be 
entirely  naked  ;  but  on  dissection,  we  find  in  its  thickness  rows  of 
small  and  extremely  thin  scales,  situate  in  these  wrinkles.     The 
eyes  which  are  very  small,  are  concealed  beneath  the  common 
integuments,  and  sometimes  they  are  entirely    wanting.     These 
animals  are  completely  apodous,  that  is,  without   feet,  and  their 
skeleton,  like  that  of  serpents,  has  two  long  rows  of  ribs ;  but 
these  bones  are  much  too  short  to  surround  the  trunk,  and,    on 
the  other  hand,  we  remark,  in  the  mode  of  articulation   of  the 
vertebrae,  and  in  the  disposition  of  their  jaws,  many   characters 
which  approximate  them  to  the  latter  batrachians. 

26.  These  reptiles,  which  establish  a  passage  between  the  batra- 
chians and  Ophidians,  inhabit  humid  and  shady  places,  dig  holes 
in  the  ground,  and  seem  to  feed  on  vegetable  substances  as  well 
as  on  worms  and  small  insects.    They  are  found  in  South  America, 

The  CLASS  OF  FISHES  comes  next  in  order. 

22.  What  are  the  characters  of  Batrachians  of  the  genus  Menobrarichus  ? 

23.  What  are  the  general  characters  of  the  Proteans  ? 

24.  What  are  Sirens  ? 

25.  What  are  the  general  characters  of  the  Apoda  ? 

26.  Where  are  they  found  ?    What  are  their  hahits  ? 


ICHTHYOLOGY. 


LESSON   V. 

CLASS  OF  FISHES. — General  Characters. — Form.— Integuments. — 
Skeleton.  —  Muscular  Apparatus.  —  Swimming -Bladder.  — 
Senses. — Apparatus  of  Diyestion.  —  Circulation.  —  Respira- 
tion.— JJuimal  Electricity. — Habits — Fishing — Classification. 

CLASS    OF    FISHES. 

The  fourth,  and  last  Class  of  the  Branch  of  Vertebrate  Ani- 
mals, comprises  the  Fishes  :  that  part  of  Natural  History  which 
treats  of  them,  is  termed  Ichthyology,  from  the  Greek,  ichthus,  a 
fish,  and  logos,  a  discourse. 

1.  These  animals,  as  every  body  knows,  are  destined  to  live 
under  water,  and  this  circumstance  has  impressed  upon  them  a 
peculiar  organization ;  but  the  most  important  differences  they 
present,  when  compared  with  other  vertebrata,  consist  in  the 
conformation  of  the  apparatuses  of  respiration   and  circulation. 
They  never  have  lungs,  and  always  breathe  by  branchiae  only. 
Their   heart  has  but  two  cavities,   and  only  receives    venous 
blood,  which,  after  being  in  contact  with  oxygen,  enters  a  dorsal 
vessel,   where  no  new  motive  force   accelerates  its  course  to 
different  parts  of  the  body.     Therefore,  their  circulation  is  not 
as  active  as  it  is  in  the  superior  animals,  and  like  that  of  reptiles, 
their  blood  is  cold.     Their  skin  is  naked,  or  covered  with  scales 
only ;  they  have  no  mamma?  like  the  mammalia,  and  are  repro- 
duced by  the  means  of  eggs  ;  their  extremities  are  in  the  form  of 
fins. 

2.  The  external  form  of  fishes  varies ;  but  their  body  is  gene- 
rally all  of  a  piece.     The  head,  which  is  of  the  same  size  of  the 
trunk,  is  not  separated  from  it  by  a  narrowing  like  the  neck  of 
the  superior  vertebrate  animals,  and  the  tail,  owing  to  its  size  at 
the  base,  is  not  distinguishable  from  the  rest  of  the  body.    Some 
of  these  animals  are  entirely  without  fins ;  but  in  most  of  them 
we  find  a  considerable  number  of  these  organs,  some  placed  on 
the  middle  line  of  the  back  or  belly,  and  consequently   unpaired 
or  singly,  and  others  on  the  side,  arranged  in  pairs.     The  latter 

1.  What  are  the  general  characters  of  Fishes?     What  is  the  peculiarity 
of  their  respiration '(     How  does  their  heart  differ  from  that  of  mammals  ? 

2.  What  is  the  general  form  of  Fishes  ?     What  is  the  situation   of  the 
pectoral  fins  ?     Where  are  the  ventral  fins  placed  ?     What  are  dorsal  fins  ? 
What  10  the  situation  of  the  anal  fin  ?     What  are  the  caudal  fins? 

6* 

v 


78 STRUCTURE  OF  FISHES. 

represent  the  extremities  of  other  vertebrate  animals,  the  ante- 
rior extremities  which  correspond  to  the  arm  in  man,  and  the 
wing  in  birds,  are  fixed  on  each  side  of  the  trunk,  immediately 
behind  the -head,  and  are  called  pectoral  fins,  (Fig.  41,  a.)  The 
abdominal  extremities  (6.)  less  distant  from  each  other,  generally 

occupy  the  inferior 
Fig,  41.*  face    of  the   body> 

and  may  be  placed 
more  forward  or 
backward,  from  be- 
neath the  throat  to 
the  origin  of  the 
tail :  they  are  called 
ventral  fins.  The 
single  or  unpaired 
fins  occupy,  as  we  have  just  said,  the  middle  line  of  the  body, 
and  are  distinguished  into  first  dorsal,  (c.)  second  dorsal,  (d.) 
anal,  (e.)  and  caudal  fins,  (/.)  according  to  their  situation  on  the 
back,  under  the  tail,  or  at  its  extremity.  They  are  all  nearly  of  the 
same  structure,  and  almost  always  consist  of  a  fold  of  the  skin, 
sustained  by  bony  or  cartilaginous  rays,  very  much  in  the  same 
manner  that  the  wings  of  bats  and  dragons  are  sustained  by  the 
fingers  or  toes,  or  by  the  ribs  of  those  animals. 

3.  We  also  observe  on  the  external  surface  of  the  body,  large 
slits  placed,  on  each  side,  immediately  behind  the   head,    which 
serve  as  an  outlet  to  the  water  which  has  laved  the  branchiae : 
they  are  openings  of  the  gills.     Generally,  there  is  but  one  on  each 
side,  and  their  anterior  edge  is  moveable,  and  resembles  a  shutter. 
Along  the  whole  length  of  the  body,  on  each  side,  there  is  a  series 
of  pores  which  form  what  ichthyologists  call  the  lateral  line. 

4,  The  skin  is  sometimes  nearly  naked,  but  is  almost  always 
covered  with  scales.     Sometimes  these  scales  are  in  the  form  of 
rough  grains  ;  sometimes  they  are  very  stout  tubercles,  or  plates 
of  considerable  thickness ;  but,  in  general,  they  are   very  thin 
lamellae,  covering  each  other  like  shingles  or  tiles,  and   let   into 
folds  of  the  skin.     They  may  be  compared  to  our  nails  ;  though 
they  contain  more  calcareous  salts.  The  colours  with  which  these 
animals   are  adorned,   are  astonishing  in  their  variety  and  bril- 
liancy. Sometimes  they  can  only  be  compared  to  the  most  glitter- 

* Explanation  of  Fig.  41 — A  common  Perch, — a.  the  pectoral  fin  of  one 
Bide, — b.  ventral  fin, — c.  first  dorsal  fin, — d.  second  dorsal  fin, — e.  anal  fin, — 
/.  caudal  fins. 

3.  What  are  the  gill  openings  ?     What  is  their  use  ?     What  is  meant  by 
the  lateral  line  ? 

4.  What  is  the  character  of  the  skin  ?  What  is  the  nature  of  scales?  How 
do  they  obtain  their  colour  ? 


STRUCTURE  OF  FISHES. 79 

ing  gold  or  silver ;  sometimes  they  present  the  richest  tints  of 
green,  blue,  red,  or  black.  The  silvery  matter  which  frequently 
gives  them  such  a  beautiful  metallic  lustre,  is  secreted  by  the 
skin,  and  is  composed  of  a  multitude  of  small  polished  plates. 

5.  The  skeleton  of  fishes  is  ordinarily  bony ;  but  in  many  of 
these  animals,  it  always  remains  fibre-cartilaginous,   or  cartila- 
ginous, and  in  some,  this  frame  possesses  even  less  solidity  and 
remains  absolutely  membranous.     In  this  respect,  they  form  the 
connecting  link  or  passage  between  the  vertebrate  and  inverte- 
brate animals. 

6.  The  bones  never  have  a  medullary  canal,  and  the  cartilage 
which  constitutes  their  basis  is  not  like   that   of  mammals  and 
birds  ;  for,  when  boiled  in  water,  it  does  not  yield  gelatine. 

7.  The  skeleton  is  composed  of  a  head,  to  which  is  joined   a 
highly  developed  hyoid   apparatus,  serving  for  respiration ;   a 
trunk  and  extremities. 

Fig.  42.* 


"  K  J        l>        /« 

SKELETON    OF   A    PERCH. 

8.  The  structure  of  the  head  is  very  complicated :  we  first 
observe  a  middle  portion,  composed  of  a  great  number  of  bones 
joined  together  by  sutures,  and  forming  a  sort  of  immoveable  keel 
to  which  are  suspended  the  bones  of  the  jaws,  cheeks,  &c.  This 

*  Explanation  of  Fig.  42. — Skeleton  of  a  Perch: — a.  the  skull, — b.  the 
orbit, — c.  the  nostrils, — d.  the  intermaxillary  bone, — e.  the  maxillary  bones, 
— -/.  the  lower  jaw,— g.  the  snb-orbital  bone, — h.  the  tympanic  bone,  and  the 
other  bony  pieces  which  separate  the  mouth  from  the  cheeks,  and  support 
the  lower  jaw, — i.  the  operculum, — j.  the  ante-operculum  bone, — /.  the 
scapula,  or  shoulder  blade, — m.  the  bones  of  the  arm,— n.  the  coracoid  bone, 
— o.  the  pectoral  fin, — p.  the  pelvis, —  q.  the  ventral  fin, — r.  the  vertebrce, — 
*.  the  ribs, — t.  the  interspinal  bones, — u.  the  bony  spine  of  the  first  dorsal 
fin, — v,  the  cartilaginous  spine  of  the  second  dorsal  fiu, — x.  the  anal  fin, — 
y.  the  caudal  fin. __^ 

5.  What  is  the  nature  of  the  skeleton  of  fishes  ? 

6.  What  is  the  character  of  the  bones  of  fishes  ?     How   does  fish-bone 
differ  from  that  of  mammals  ? 

7.  How  is  the  skeleton  of  fishes  divided  ? 

8.  What  are  the  general  characters  of  the  head  ? 


80 STRUCTURE  OF  FISHES. 

middle  portion,  the  form  of  which  is  that  of  a  pyramid  with  three 
sides,  with  its  summit  directed  forward,  presents  posteriorly  the 
cranial  box,  or  skull,  (Fig.  42,  a.)  in  which  is  lodged  the  appa- 
ratus of  hearing  as  well  as  the  brain.  Its  middle  part  is  hollowed 
out  to  form  the  orbits,  (b.)  and  in  front,  we  find  pits  which  be- 


SKELETON    OF   A    PERCH. 

long  to  the  olfactory  apparatus,  (c.)  There  are  bones  which 
correspond  to  those  of  the  heads  of  mammals,  but  most  of  these 
bones,  in  fishes,  are  composed  of  several  pieces,  which  never 
run  together  into  one,  as  happens  at  an  early  age  in  the  mam- 
malia and  birds. 

9.  At  the  anterior  extremity  of  this  portion  of  the  head,  we 
find  the  upper  jaw,  which  is  sometimes   immoveable,   though  it 
generally  preserves  great  mobility :  on   each   side   there   is   an 
inter-maxillary  bone,   (d.)  placed   near  the  middle  line,  and  a 
lower  jaw  bone  which  extends  laterally,  and  moves   upon   the 
first.     Besides  these  parts,  we  find  a  very  considerable  apparatus 
designed  to  afford  attachment  to  the  branchiae,  or  to  protect  them, 
composed  in  part  of  the  hyoid  bone,  which  is  covered  on   each 
side  by  a  sort  of  cover  or  door,  called  operculum-,  (/.)  or  gill-cover. 

10.  The  vertebral  column,  (r.)  which  is  continuous  with  the 
head,  is  divided  into  two  distinct  portions,  one   dorsal,  and  the 
other  caudal.     The  body  of  the  vertebrae  has  a  peculiar  form  ;  it 
is  hollowed  before  and  behind  by  a  conical   cavity  ;  these   two 
hollow  spaces  are  sometimes  joined  so  as  to  form  a  hole,  and  the 
double  conical  cavity  arising  from  the  junction  of  two  neighbour- 
ing vertebrae,  is  filled  by  a  soft  substance.     The  ring,  destined  to 
form  a  passage  for  the  spinal  marrow,  is  surmounted  by  a  spinous 
process,  and  on  each  side  there  is  a  more  or  less  distinct  trans- 
verse process,  which,  over  the  cavity  of  the   abdomen,   extends 
outwardly,  and  articulates  with  the  corresponding  rib,  but  in  the 

9.  Is  the  upper  jaw  moveable  or  not?     What  is  the  operculum  ? 
10.  What  are  the  characters  of  the  vertcbrsB  in  fishes? 


81 


caudal  portion  of  the  spine,  it  is  directed  downwards,  and  often 
forms,  with  its  fellow  of  the  opposite  side,  a  ring,  from  the  lower 
part  of  which  arises  a  long  spinous  process,  similar  to  that  which 
is  situate  on  the  dorsal  face  of  the  vertebra. 

11.  The  ribs  are  sometimes  wanting;  at  other  times,   they 
encircle  the  whole  abdomen,  and,  in  a  small  number  "of  fishes, 
they  are  fixed  to  a  series  of  unpaired   or  single   bones,    which 
should  be  regarded  as  the   sternum.     They   frequently   sustain 
one  or  two  stylets  which  have  an  outward  direction,  and   pene- 
trate the  flesh.     Sometimes  there  are  similar  stylets  arising  from 
the  bodies  of  the  vertebrae,  and  hence  it  is  that,  in  certain  genera, 
such  as  herrings,  fish-bones  become  so  numerous. 

12.  On  the  middle  line  of  the  body,  we  also   find   a  certain 
number  of  bones,  called  inter&piwil,  (Fig.  43,  /.  )   which  gene- 
rally rest  upon  the  ends  of  the  spinous  processes  of  the  vertebrae, 
and,    by   their  opposite  ex-  _,,. 

tremities,  artieulate  with  the 

rays  of  the  middle  fins,  (//.) 

These  rays   are   sometimes 

pointed  bones,  called  stinys, 

or  spines  ;    sometimes  they 

are   stalks   or   stems    bony 

only  at  the  base,  formed    of 

a  multitude  of  small  articu- 

lations in  continuation,  and  HTTERSPINAL  BONES. 

often  branched  towards  the  end.     These  last   appendages  are 

called  soft,  or  articulated  rays  :  they  always  form   the  caudal 

fin,  and  sometimes  there  are  no  others. 

13.  The  lateral  fins,   which   represent  the   extremities,  are 
terminated   by  rays   similar  to  those  of  the  vertical  fins,   and 
analogous  to  fingers.     At  the  base  of  the  pectoral  fin  we  find  a 
series  of  from  four  to  five  small  flat  bones,  comparable  to  the 
bones  of  the  carpus,  which,  in  their  turn,  are  attached  to   two 
flat  bones  which  seem  to  be  the  radius  and  ulna  enlarged.    This 
apparatus  is  supported  on  a  species  of  bony  belt,  situate'  imme- 
diately behind  the  gills,  and  on  which  the  operculum  applies  :  it 
consists  of  a  series  of  three  bones,  extending  from  the  cranium 
to  the  hyoid  apparatus,  and  supports  posteriorly  a  long  stylet. 
The  principal  piece  that  enters  into  its  composition  is  that  which 
supports  the  fore-arm,  which  may  be  compared  to  the  humerus, 
(See  Fig.  42,  Page  80.)  :  it  joins  below  with  that  of  the  opposite 

11.  What  are  the  characters  of  the  ribs  ? 

12.  What  are  the  interspinal  bones  ?     What  arc  the  riys  of  the  fins  ? 

13.  What  parts  of  fishes  represent  the  extremities  of  mammals  ? 


82 STRUCTURE    OF  FISHES. 

side,  and  with  a  middle  prolongation  of  the  hyoid  apparatus,  and 
is  attached  to  the  cranium  through  the  medium  of  two  bones, 
which  Cuvier  considers  analogous  to  the  scapula;  finally,  the 
stylet  which  arises  from  it,  and  is  prolonged  backwards  upon  the 
ribs,  is  ordinarily  formed  of  two  pieces,  and  may  be  compared 
to  a  coracoid  bone. 

14.  The  posterior  extremity  is  less  complicated;  the   rays  oi 
the  ventral  fin  are  supported  by  a  single  bone,   generally   trian- 
gular, which  often   becomes    attached    in   front,  to  the    middle 
junction  of  the  bony  belt  of  the  pectoral  extremity,  and  at  other 
times  it  is  merely  suspended  in  the  flesh. 

15.  In  cartilaginous  fishes,  the  arrangement   of  the   skeleton 
differs  from  what  has  just  been  described.     The  head  especially, 
is  much  more  simple  in  its  structure. 

16.  The  muscular  apparatus  is  composed  of  muscles  destined 
to  flex  the  vertebral  column  laterally,  and  also  to  move  the  tail; 
they  form  the  largest  part  of  the  mass   of  the   body   of  fishes. 
By  striking  the  water  laterally,  by  alternate  flexions  of  the  trunk 
and  tail,  these  animals  communicate  to  their   body,    nearly   the 
whole  of  the  rapidity  they  have  in   swimming.     Their   vertical 

•  fins  serve  to  increase  the  extent  of  the  species  of  keel  or  oar 
they  form,  while  the  chief  use  of  the  pectoral  and  ventral  fins, 
in  general,  is  to  influence  the  direction  of  their  course,  and  to 
maintain  the  equilibrium  of  the  animal. 

17.  A  peculiarity  of  their  organization,  which  is  of  great  assis- 
tance in  swimming,  is  the  existence  of  a  sort  of  pouch  filled  with 
air,  and  so  placed  that  it  can  be  compressed  at  will.     This  swim- 
ming, or  air-bladder,  which  is  placed  in  the  abdomen  beneath  the 
dorsal  spine,  ordinarily  communicates  with  the  oesophagus,   or 
stomach,  by  a  canal,  through  which  the  air  contained  in  it,  may 
escape ;  but  this  fluid  does  not  seem  to  enter  by  that  route  ;  it  is 
produced  by  secretion,  the  seat  of  which  is  in  a  portion   of  the 
parietes  of  the  reservoir  itself,  which  is  of  a  glandular  structure. 
By  the   motions   of  the   ribs,  this  bladder  is  more  or  less  com- 
pressed, and,  according  to  its  volume,  it  gives  to  the  body  of  the 
fish,  a  specific  gravity,  equal,  superior  or  inferior  to  that  of  the 
water,  and  causes  it  thus  to  remain  in  equilibrium,  to  descend,  or 
ascend  in  this  liquid.     It  is  remarked  that  it  is  often    wanting, 
and  that  it  is  very  small  in  those   species  that  swim   near   the 
bottom,  or  bury  themselves  in  the  mud. 

14.  What  is  the  character  of  the  posterior  extremity? 

15.  Is  the  skeleton  the  same  in  all  fishes  ? 

16.  By  what  means  do  fishes  move  ?     What  is  the  use  of  the  fins  ? 

17.  What  is  the  air-bladder  in  fishes  ?     What  is  the   source  of  the  air 
contained  in  it  ? 


STRUCTURE    OF    FISHES. 83 

18.  In  a  small  number  of  fishes,  the  pectoral  fins  are  so  very 
much  developed,  as  to  enable  the  animal  to  sustain  itself  in  the 
air  for  a  few  moments,  when  it  springs  out  of  water.     There  are 
some  also,  that  by  crawling,  or  by  frequent  leaps,  are  capable  of 
progression  on  land.     It  is  asserted  that  some  can  climb  trees  ; 
but  instances  of  this  kind,  are  very  rare. 

19.  Fishes  pass  their  lives  almost  entirely  in   providing  for 
their  subsistence,  or  in  escaping  from  their  enemies ;  their  ex- 
ternal senses  seem  to  afford  them  only  very  du41  impressions,  and 
their  faculties  are  of  the  most  limited  character. 

20.  Fishes  are  very  stupid  animals ;  they  have  no  remarkable 
intelligence  or  instinct,  and  their  brain,  (Fig.  45,  t.)  is  but  little 
developed  ;  it  does  not  entirely  fill  the  cavity  of  the  cranium,  and 
is  surrounded  by  a  liquid  matter  of  a  fatty  nature. 

21.  The  ear  of  fishes,  in  general,  is  composed  only  of  a  vesti- 
bule,  surmounted  by  three  membranous   semi-circular  canals, 
suspended  in  the  cavity  of  the  cranium,  on  each  side  of  the  brain, 
and  to  which  waves  of  sound  are  communicated,  only  after  they, 
have  set  in  vibration  the  common  integuments  and  bones  of  the 
cranium      Generally,  there  is  no  appearance  of  an  external  ear. 
Their  eyes  are  ordinarily  very  large,  and  are   unprovided  with 
true  eye  lids,  and  a  lachrymal  apparatus  ;  the  skin  which  covers 
them  is  transparent ;  and   the  iris  is  silvery  and  immoveable,  or 
nearly  so,  and  the  cornea  is  almost  flat,  the  pupil  is  very  large, 
and  the  chrystalline  lens  is  spherical.     The  nasal   fossae  do   not 
open  into  the  pharynx,  as  is  the  case  in  vertebrate  animals  that 
breathe  air.     The  tongue  is  never  truly  fleshy,  and  the  sense  of 
taste  is  but  little  developed.     Tact  must  be  extremely  obtuse. 
In  general,  the  skin  of  these  animals  is   entirely  covered    with 
scales  ;  sometimes,  however,  it  is  naked. 

22.  Ordinarily  fishes  are  very  voracious,  and  are   not   very 
particular  in  their  choice  of  food.     The  species  which  live  chiefly 
on  vegetables,  are  very  few  in  number;  they  are   almost  all 
carnivorous,  and  devour  each  other. 

23.  Fishes  sometimes  have  teeth,  not  only  in  the  jaws,  but  also 
in  all  the  bones  that  surround  the  cavity  of  the  mouth,  and  that 
of  the  pharynx  ;  at  other  times  they  are  entirely  wanting.  These 
teeth  never  have  roots,  and  their  form  varies  very  much,  parttcu- 

18.  Are  fishes  capable  of  progression,  when  out  of  water  ? 

19.  Are  the  senses  of  fishes  very  acute? 

20.  What  is  the  character  of  the  brain  in  fishes  ? 

21.  What  is  the  character  of  the  ear  in  fishes  ?     What  are  the  peculiari- 
ties of  the  eye  ?     What  are  the  peculiarities  of  the  nasal  fossae  ? 

22.  Upon  what  do  fishes  generally  feed  ? 

23.  What  is  the  character  of  the  teeth  of  fishes  ? 


84 


STRUCTURE   OF    FISFIES. 


larly  those  that  are  found  on  the  pharyngeal  bones,  and  which 
serve  to  grind  the  food  when  on  its  way  to  the  oesophagus. 
They  have  no  true  salivary  glands  ;  the  oesophagus  is  very  short. 

Fig.  45.*  p 


ANATOMY    OF   A    PIKE. 

24.  The  other  viscera  of  the  digestive   apparatus,  (Fig.  45.) 
are  lodged  in  the  abdomen,  which  is  lined  by  a  peritoneum,  and 
separated  from  the  cavity  containing  the  heart    by   a  sort    of 
diaphragm,  (s.)     In  some  fishes,  (chiefly  the  cartilaginous  fishes,) 
the  abdomen  communicates  externally  by  two  openings,  situate 
upon  the  sides  of  the  anus,  so  that  the  peritoneum  is  continuous 
with  the  skin. 

25.  The  stomach,  (i.)  is  in  general,  very  distinct ;  that  part 
which  corresponds_  to  the  large  intestine,  is  not  much  larger  than 
the  small  intestine;  and  there  never  is  a  ccecum  as  in  mammals. 
The  liver,    (m.)  is  generally  large,  and  of  a  soft  texture ;  the 
position  and  size  of  the  gall-bladder,  (•».)  vary  ;  the  place  of  the 
pancreas  is  almost  always  supplied  by  two  tubes  of  a  peculiar 
tissue,  placed  around  the  pylorus  ;  the  position  of  the  anus  varies 
much  ;  sometimes  it  is  found  under  the  throat,  and  at  others,  at 
the  base  of  the  tail.     The  kidneys,  (p.)  are  very  voluminous,  and 
extend  along  both  sides  of  the  vertebral  column,  the  whole  length 
of  the  abdomen.     Their  excretory  ducts  terminate  in  a   sort    of 
bladder,  the  opening  of  which  is  posterior  to  the  anus. 

*  Explanation  of  Fig.  45. — Anatomy  of  the  viscera  of  a  Pike  : — a.  the 
nostrils, — b.  the  cavity  of  the  mouth, — c.  a  part  of  the  lower  jaw, — d.  the 
tongue, — e.  the  branchiae,  or  gills,—/,  the  arch  of  the  palate,  or  roof  of  the 
mouth, — p.  openings  through  which  the  water  passes  from  the  mouth  to 
the  branchiae. — h.  the  oesophagus, — t.  the  stomach, — j.  the  intestine, — k. 
the  anus, — m.  the  liver, — n.  the  gall-bladder, — o.  the  duct  of  the  gall-bladder, 
— p.  the  kidneys, — q.  the  urinary  Madder, — r.  the  heart, — s.  the  diaphragm, 
t.  the  brain, — u.  the  spinal  marrow, — v.  the  swimming-bladder  or  air- 
vessel. 

24.  Where  are  the  chief  organs  of  digestion  situate? 

25.  What  are  the  general  characters  of  the  digestive  organs? 


CIRCULATION   OF  FISHES. 85 

26.  Digestion  seems  to  be  carried  on  very  rapidly,   and  the 
chyle  is  absorbed  by  numerous  lymphatic  vessels,  which  empty, 
by  many  trunks,  into  the  venous  system,  near  the  heart. 

27.  The  blood  of  fishes  is  red;  the  globules  are  elliptical   in 
form,  and  of  considerable  size. 

28.  The  heart  (Fig.  45,  r.)  is  placed  under  the  throat, in  a  cavity, 
separated  from  the  abdomen  by  a  sort  of  diaphragm,  (.<?,)  (as  we 
have  just  said,)  and  protected  by  the  pharyngeal  bones  above,  by 
the  arches  of  the  branchiae  on  the  sides,   and  generally   by   the 
humeral  cincture  behind.     It  is  composed  of  an  auricle,    which 
receives  the  venous  blood  collected  in  a  large  sinus  (a  kind  of 
large  vein)  situated  near  it,  and  of  a  ventricle  placed  below,  and 
giving  origin,  at  its  anterior  extremity,  to  a  pulmonary   artery, 
the  base  of  which  is  inflated,  and  constitutes  a  contractile  bulb. 
This  vessel  soon  divides  into  lateral  branches,  which  are  dis- 
tributed to  the  gills,  and  the  blood,  after  traversing  these  organs, 
goes  to  the  head  through  another  vessel,  which  also  runs  along 
the   arches   of  the  branchiae.     There   these   canals  send  some 
branches  to  the  neighbouring  parts,  and  unite  to  form   a  great 
dorsal  artery,  which  is  directed  backwards,  beneath  the   spinal 
column,  and  sends  branches  to  all  other  parts  of  the  body.    But  all 
the  venous  blood  does  not  go  directly  into  the  sinus  mentioned 
above ;  that   of    the  intestines,  and  some,  other   parts,    before 
returning  to  the  heart,  is  carried  through  the  liver  by  the    vena 
porta. 

29.  We  see  now  that  the  blood,  in  passing  through  the  circu- 
latory circle,  entirely  traverses  the  respiratory  apparatus  as  in 
mammals  and  birds,  but  it  only  passes  o/tce  tkrouqh  the  heart, 
which  must  render  its  progress  slower.     The  heart  itself  corres- 
ponds in  its  functions  to  the  right  half  of  the  same  organ  in  the 
superior  vertebrate  animals. 

30.  Respiration  is  effected  by  means  of  the  air  which  is  always 
found  dissolved  in  the  water,  and  takes  place  on  the  surface  of  a 
multitude  of  very  vascular  and  projecting  lamellae,  attached   to 
the  external  edge  of  the  branchial  arches.     Generally,  there  are, 
on  each  side,  four  branchiae    each  composed   of  two   rows   of 
elongated  lamellae.     In  most  of  the  cartilaginous  fishes  there  are 
five,  and,  in  the  lamprey,  we  find  seven.     In  almost  all  the  bony 

2fi.  Is  the  digestion  of  fishes  very  rapid  ? 
27.  What  is  the  character  of  the  blood  in  fishes  1 

23.  What  is  the  situation  of  the  heart  ?     What  are  the  peculiarities   of 
the  circulatory  apparatus  in  fishes  1 

29.  In  what  particulars  does  the  circulation  of  fishes  differ  from  4hat  of 
mammals  and  birds  ? 

30.  How  is  respiration  effected  in  fishes  ? 

7 


86 ^RESPIRATION  OF  FISHES. 

fishes,  these  lamella?  are  simple,  and  only  attached  at  their  base  ; 
in  a  small  number,  they  are,  on  the  contrary,  ramified,  and  in  the 
form  of  tufts ;  finally,  in  most  cartilaginous  fishes,  they  are 
attached  to  the  skin  by  their  external  edge,  as  well  as  to  the 
arches  of  the  branchiae  by  their  internal  edge. 

31.  The  water  necessary  for  respiration  enters  the  mouth,  and, 
by  an  act  of  swallowing,  passes  through  the  slits,  left  between  the 
branchial  curves  or  arches,  and  in  this  way  reaches  the  branchiae, 
laves  their  surfaces,  and  then  escapes  through  the  openings  of  the 
gills.    We  see,  in  fact,  the  animal  open  its  mouth,  and  elevate  the 
operculum  alternately.     In  fishes,    in  which   the    branchiae    are 
free  on  their  external  edge,  one  of  these  openings  on  each  side 
is  sufficient ;  but,  when  the  branchiae  are  fixed,  there  is  required 
as  many  openings  as  there  are  spaces  betwixt  the  branchiae. 
Consequently,  we  are  made  acquainted  with  the  arrangement  of 
the  respiratory  apparatus  by   simply  inspecting    the    external 
openings. 

32.  Fishes  consume  a  very  moderate  quantity  of  oxygen,  some 
however,  are  not  content  with  what  is  dissolved  in  the  water, 
and  visit  the  surface,  from  time  to  time,  to  breathe  the  air.    There 
are  some  indeed  that  swallow  it,  and    by   causing    it   to   pass 
through  the  intestine,  convert   the   oxygen  into   carbonic   acid. 
When  fishes  remain  out  of  water,  they  generally   perish    very 
quickly  from  asphyxia,  not  for  the  want  of  oxygen,  but  because, 
the  branchial  lamellae,  being  unsustained  by  the  water,  are  effaced, 
and  do  not  permit  the  blood  to  pass  readily  through  them,  and 
because  these  organs,  by  drying,  become  unfitted  for  performing 
their  functions :  therefore,  those  fishes  that  perish  most  promptly 
from    exposure   to   the  air,   have  widely  open  gills,  which  facili- 
tates evaporation  from  the  branchiae,  while,  those  that  resist  this 
exposure  best,  have  these  openings  ver}'  narrow,  or  even  possess 
some  receptacle  in  which  they  preserve    water   for   moistening 
these  organs. 

33.  As  we  have  already  stated,  fishes  produce  scarcely  any 
hrat:  but  some  of  them  possess  the  singular  faculty  of  producing 
electricity,  and  of  giving  very  powerful  shocks  to   animals    that 
touch  them.     The  Torpedo,  the  Silurus,  and  a  species  of  Gym- 
notus.  are  of  this  kind,  and  what  is  very  remarkable,  the  confor- 
mation of  the  electric  organ  differs  in  each  one  of  them. 

31.  How  do  the  gills  receive  the  supply  of  water  necessary  for  the  respira- 
tion of  tithes  ? 

32.  Do  fishes  require  a  large  quantity  of  oxygen  for  the  purposes  of  res- 
piration ?     Why  do  fishes  quickly  die  when  out  of  the  water? 

33.  Do  fishes  p-odnce  much  animal  heat  ?  Do  all  fishes  possess  the  faculty 
of  producing  electricity? 


HABITS  OF  FISHES. 87 

34.  To   the   simultaneous   developement    of   an   incalculable 
number  of  eggs,  deposited  in  the  same  place,  and  the  instinct 
that  induces   different    fishes   to   follow   each    other,    we   must 
attribute  the  assemblage  of  certain  species,  in  immense  and  close 
legions,  called  by  fishermen,  skoals  of  fish.     In  fact,  we  cannot 
well  term  these  assemblages,  companies  or  societies;  the  indi- 
viduals composing  them  do  not  aid  each  other;  from  having  the 
same  necessities  to  satisfy,  they   keep  in  the  same  locality,  or 
abandon   it,   and   if  we   sometimes   observe    one  among   them 
followed   as   a   leader,   it  probably  arises   from  a  tendency  to 
imitation  which  always  accompanies  the  first  dawnings  of  reason. 

[  It  may  be  astonishing-  to  some  to  speak  of  the  reasoning  of  a  fish,  an 
animal  that  is  proverbial  for  its  stupidity;  but  if  we  study  the  habits  of 
these  beings  in  our  fish-ponds,  wo  shall  see  that,  when  they  swirn  tranquilly; 
without  any  determined  aim,  they  pass  side  by  side,  without  seeming  to  pay 
attention  to  the  motions  of  their  companions  :  but,  if  one  of  them  suddenly 
perceiving  a  bait,  hastens  its  course,  and  swims  swiftly  in  a  determined 
direction,  we  frequently  observe  that  the  other  fishes,  even  those  that  are 
placed  so  as  not  to  perceive  the  object  of  attraction,  at  once  follow  in  the 
crowd  to  profit  by  the  discovery.  Now,  this  instinct  of  imitation  resembles 
simple  reasoning,  it  is  true,  but  aonsecutive.  M.iy  we  not  suppose  that 
these  animals  attribute  the  rapid  course  of  their  companion  to  some  circum- 
stance of  a  nature  to  interest  them  also,  to  the  discovery  of  some  danger 
they  ought  to  avoid,  or  to  some  bait  he  rushes  to  devour,  and  it  is  for  this 
reason  they  hasten  in  pursuit  /  And  is  not  this  the  case  every  where,  even 
among  men  ;  and  is  not  the  instinct  of  imitation,  which  produces  so  many 
good  and  evil  actions,  a  consequence  of  this  tendency  to  profit  by  the  results 
of  the  observation  or  judgment  of  another,  and  to  attribute  to  the  actions  of 
those  who  seem  to  be  moved  by  a' powerful  impulse,  an  object  that  it  would 
be  equally  desirable  for  all  to  attain  ?  ] 

35.  Whatever   it  may   be,  these  animals  thus  assembled  in 
troops,  often  make  long  voyages,  either  to  gain  the  open  sea,  or 
to  ascend  rivers,  or  to  change  their  latitude.     Certain  fishes  lead 
an  almost  sedentary  life,  and  always  remain  in  the  same  locality 
where  they  were  born  ;  others  are  always  roaming,  and  a  great 
many  of  these  animals  make  periodical  voyages   of  greater   or 
less  extent.     In  the  cold  season,  they    ordinarily   approach   the 
coast,  or  enter  rivers,  and  in  this    way   make  long  passages. 
Every  year,  about  the  same  period,  shoals   of  migratory  fishes 
arrive  in  the  sam^  places,  and  it  is  generally  believed  that  .many 
of  these  species  regularly  migrate  from  the   north    towards  the 
south,  and  from  the  south  towards  the  north,   pursuing  a  deter- 

34  How  do  you  account  for  those  vast  assemblages  of  various  kinds  of 
fish,  termed  Shoals  ? 

35.  Are  the  habits  of  all  kinds  of  fish  the  same  ?  Are  the  same  fishes 
always  found  in  the  same  localities  ? 


REARING    OF   FISHES. 


mined  route  ;  perhaps  it  would  be  more  correct  to  believe  that 
when  they  disappear  from  the  shore,  they  only  retire  to  the  great 
depths  of  the  sea. 

36.  According  to  their  habits,  fishes  are  divided  into  marine 
and  fluviatile  ;  there  are  some  too,  that  alternately  frequent  salt 
and  fresh  water,  and  the  nature  of  this  fluid  seems  to  exercise 
less  influence  upon  them  than  is  generally  believed  ;  for  some 
essentially  marine  fishes,  have  been  successfully  reared  in  reser- 
voirs of  fresh  water. 

The  number  of  these  animals  is  immense,  and,  as  they  furnish 
man  a  wholesome  and  agreeable  aliment,  fishing  is  ah  important 
branch  of  industry  among  the  most  savage  as  well  as  among  the 
most  civilized  people. 

The  Romans,  who,  after  the  loss  of  their  liberty,  displayed 
such  boundless  luxury  in  the  table,  did  not  confine  themselves  to 
sending  fishing  vessels  to  the  neighbouring  seas,  and  to  receiving 
fishes  from  the  lonians,  inventors  of  the  fish-car,  which  is  a  kind 
of  floating  reservoir  for  keeping  fish  alive  ;  but  better  to  secure 
the  supply,  the  wealthiest  citizens  constructed  immense  fish-ponds, 
filled  with  sea-water,  in  which  they  deposited  the  most  delicate 
fishes  of  Sicily,  and  even  of  Greece  and  Egypt.  The  first  person 
who  built  one  of  these  great  depots  was  Lucius  Muraena,  so 
named,  from  the  care  he  took  of  the  Muraena  or  eels  :  he  had 
numerous  imitators,  and  was  even  surpassed  in  his  follies  by 
Lucullusj  who  cut  through  a  mountain  near  Naples,  to  introduce 
the  sea-  water  into  his  ponds,  and  hollowed  the  rocks,  which  sur- 
rounded them,  into  caverns,  to  afford  his  fishes  a  cool  retreat 
during  the  heat  of  summer.  Other  great  personages  of  the  ancient 
capital  of  the  world,  prided  themselves  on  possessing  fishes  so 
tame  as  to  suffer  themselves  to  be  touched  ;  we  are  assured,  that 
Crassus  was  more  distressed  upon  losing  one  of  his  eels,  than 
upon  the  death  of  his  three  children  ;  and  history  relates  the 
curious  circumstance  of  a  Roman  lady  going  into  mourning  on 
account  of  the  death  of  a  favourite  Muraena  :  to  give  an  idea  of. 
this  strange  taste  of  those  degenerate  Romans  for  fish  of  every 
kind,  we  will  mention  a  supper  given  to  the  Emperor  Otho  by  his 
brother,  at  which  there  were  served  two  thousand  plates  of  rare 
fishes. 

"  Pliny  relates,  as  a  fact,  that  one  Vedius  Pollio,  a  particular 
friend  of  Augustus,  took  delight  in  throwing  his  slaves  in  the 
eel-vats,  for  the  pleasure  of  seeing  them  torn  to  pieces  and 

3G.  What  is  the  division  of  fishes  according  to  their  habits  ?  Does  the 
quality  of  the  water  whether  salt  or  fresh,  exercise  much  influence  upen 
fishes  ? 


CLASSIFICATION    OF    FISHED  Pf) 


devoured  On  a  particular  occasion,  the  Emperor  honoured 
Pollio  with  his  company,  at  a  brilliant  entertainment,  at  which  a 
slave  unfortunately  happened  to  break  a  costly  crystal  vase. 
The  unfeeling  master,  in  a  paroxysm  of  fury,  exclaimed  to  the 
other  attendants, — "Away  with  him  to  the  Mursenae."  The  poor 
wretch,  almost  dead  with  horror,  fell  at  the  feet  of  the  Emperor, 
beseeching  that  he  might  be  permitted  to  die  some  death  less 
terrible !  Astonished  at  the  sudden  and  strange  circumstance, 
Augustus  made  speedy  inquiry  into  this  extraordinary  mode  of 
punishment,  and  when  he  fully  understood  the  savage  cruelty, 
disposition,  and  practice  of  Pollio,  ordered  at  once,  all  the  remain- 
ing vessels  broken  before  his  face : — directed  the  reservoirs  to  be 
filled  up, — gave  freedom  to  the  plead  ing  slave,  and  only  consented 
to  spare  the  life  of  the  murderer,  his  master,  in  consideration  of 
his  former  regard." — Natural  History  of  the  Fishes  of  Massa- 
chusetts, by  Jerome  V.  C.  Smith,  M.  D. 

Modern  times  have  not  witnessed  similar  follies ;  but  neverthe- 
less, for  many  maritime  people,  fishing  has  not  been  the  less  a 
source  of  great  wealth.  At  one  period,  which  is  not  very  remote 
from  our  own,  this  branch  of  industry  employed  one  fifth  of  the 
total  population  of  Holland,  and  in  the  herring  fishery  alone,  that 
country  covered  the  whole  North  Sea  with  her  vessels.  In 
England,  it  subsisted  a  considerable  number  of  good  and  hardy 
sailors,  and  even  in  France,  where  it  is  of  less  importance,  there 
are  from  thirty  to  forty  thousand  fishermen,  about  one  third  of 
whom  venture  as  far  as  the  coasts  of  Iceland  and  Newfoundland. 
And  in  the  United  States  a  very  large  number  of  people  derive 
their  living  from  the  various  fisheries. 

37.  The  immense  CLASS  OF  FISHES  is  naturally  divided  into  two 
series,  the  Osseous  and  Cartilaginous  fishes,  which  differ  from  each 
other,  not  only  in  their  skeleton,  but  also  in  a  great  number  of 
other  characters  The  modification  of  the  structure  of  the 
branchias,  the  disposition  of  the  mouth,  and  the  nature  of  the 
fin-rays  that  sustain  the  dorsal  fin,  as  well  as  the  position  of  the 
ventral  fins,  furnish  naturalists^with  the  basis  for  the  division  of 
the  two  groups  into  orders,  as  may  be  seen  in  the  following 
table : 

37.  What  is  the  first  division  of  the  Class  of  Fishes?  What  parts  of 
these  animals  afford  the  means  or  basis  of  classifying  them  7 

7* 


90 


DIVISION   OF  THE  CLASS  OF   FISHES. 


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OSSEOUS   FISHES.  9t 


LESSON  VI. 

ORDER  OF  ACANTHOPTERYGIANS. — Family  of  Percoides,  (Perches, 
Rock-Jish.)— Family  of  Mulloides,  (Red  Mullets, Flying-fishes.) 
—  Family  of  Mailed- cheeks. — Family  of  Scienoides. — Family 
of  Sparoides. — Family  of  Menides. — Family  of  Syuamipennes. 
— Family  of  Labyrinthiform  pharyngeals. — Family  of  Scorn- 
beroides,  (Mackerel. — Mackerel  Fishery. —  Tunny.  —  Sword~ 
Fish,  £c.) 

DIVISION    OF    OSSEOUS    FISHES. 
ORDER     OF     AC  ANTHOPTE  R  YGII. 

1.  The  Order  of  Acanthopterygians  is  easily  recognised  by  the 
disposition  of  the  branchia3  and  upper  jaw,  and  by  the  spinous 
fins.     Three  fourths  of  the  fishes  known,  belong  to  this  group ; 
but  these  animals  resemble  each  other  in  so  very  many  respects, 
that  in  spite  of  the  numerous  differences  we  remark  among  them, 
we  can  only  separate  them  into  several  natural  families,   all    of 
which  we  are  obliged  to  place  in  the  same  order 

2.  The  first  fin-rays  of  the  back  are  always  bony  and  spinous, 
(Fig.  46.)     When  there  are  two  dorsal  fins,  these  spinous  rays 
only   sustain  the   first;   and  p^  45 

when  there  is  but  one  of 
these  organs,  they  sustain  at 
least  its  anterior  portion; 
and  we  sometimes  find  them 
entirely  free  or  separate. 
Generally  there  is  also  a 
bony  ray  to  each  ventral 
fin,  and  frequently  the  anal 
fin  has  some  spines  for  its  first  rays. 

3.  This  order  is  divided  into  six  natural  families,   the   most 
remarkable  of  which  are,  the  Percoides,  the  Mulloides,  the  Mailed- 
cheeks,  the  Labyrinthiform  Pharyngeals  and  Scomberoides. 

4.  The  FAMILY  OF  PERCOIDES,  (or  fishes  that  resemble  a  Perch) 
is  composed  of  fishes  that  have  an  obtong,  more   or   less   com- 
pressed body,  covered  with  scales,  which  are  generally  hard ; 
the  mouth  large,  and  armed  with  teeth,  situate  upon  the  front  of 
the  vomer,  and  almost  always  on  the  palate  bones  as  well  as  thfe 
jaws,  the  branchial  arches  and  pharyngeal  bones  ;  the  operculum, 
or  the  bone  situate  immediately  anterior  to  it,  and  therefore  called 
pre-operculum,  or  ante-operculum,  is  dentate  or  spiny  on  its  edge ; 

1.  How  is  the  Order  of  Acanthopterygians  distinguished  ? 

2.  What  is  the  character  of  their  dorsal  fins  ? 

3.  How  is  this  order  divided  ? 


PERCHES.— ROCK-FISH. 


and  the  fins  are  always  seven  or  eight  in  number.  They  have 
no  beards  upon  the  chin  ;  in  general,  they  are  adorned  with 
beautiful  colours,  and  their  flesh  is  very  agreeable  food. 

5.  Most  of  these  fishes  have  the  ventral  fins  attached  beneath 
the  pectoral ;  those  in  which  this  arrangement  occurs  are  known 
under  the   name  of  Thoracic  Percoides:  they  are  sub-divided 
into  two  groups  characterised  by  the  number  of  the  soft  rays  of 
the  ventral  fin,  which  is  five  in  the  one,  and  seven  in  the   other. 
Among  the  first  are  those  that  have  seven  branchiostegous  rays, 
(the  small,  thin,  and  elongated  bones  which  sustain  the  gill-mem- 
brane, situate  beneath  the  operculum,  and  serving  to   complete 
the  external   parietes   of  the  branchial  cavity,)  two  dorsal  fins, 
and  all  the  teeth  very  fine  and  close,  like  the  pile  on  velvet ;  they 
are  the  Perches,  the  Rock-Fuk^  &c. 

6.  The  PERCHES, — Perca, — are  distinguished  by  their  smooth 
tongue    and  by  the  spines  and  teeth  on  their  opercula  :  they 
inhabit  fresh  water.     The  Common  Perch, —  Perca  flumatilis, — 
(Fig.  47.)  which  is  greenish,  with  vertical,  blackish  bands,   and 

Fig.  47.  tne  ventral  and  anal 

fins  red,  is  found 
throughout  Europe, 
as  well  as  a  great 
part  of  Asia,  and  the 
United  States.  It 
inhabits  lakes,  rivers, 
and  running  streams, 
COMMON  PERCH.  and  avoids  salt,  or 

brackish  water,  and  ordinarily  keeps  at  a  depth  of  two  or  three 
feet.  These  fishesdo  not  swim  in  numerous  shoals  ;  they  feed  on 
•  worms,  insects  and  small  fishes :  they  spawn  in  the  month  of 
April,  and  their  eggs  are  joined  together  by  a  viscid  matter  in 
long  cords,  which  interlace  among  reeds,  &c. 

7.  The  ROCK-FISH,  or  STRIPED    BASSE, —  Perca  labrax, — is    a 
sea-fish  that   has   the  tongue  covered  with  asperities,  and  the 
opercula  somewhat  different,  but  which,  in  other  respects,  closely 
resembles  the  Perches.     On  the  sides  are  parallel  lines,  like  nar- 
row ribbons,  eight  in  number,  which  give  it  the  name  of  Striped 
Basse  ;  the  scales  are  large,  of  a  metallic  lustre,  and   the   oper- 
Ailum  is  serrated  in  the  middle  plate.     This  fish  abounds  on  our 
own  coast,  and  is  much  esteemed  as  an  article  of  food. 

4.  How  is  the  family  of  Percoides  distinguished  ? 

5.  What  are  Thoracic  Percoides  ? 

6.  What  are  the  characters  of  the  Perches  ?     What  are  the  characters  of 
the  common  Perch  ?    What  are  its  habits  ? 

7.  What  are  the  characters  of  the  Rock-fish  or  Striped  Basse  ? 


MULLETS.— FLY  I NG-FISTT. 93 

8.  The  FAMILY  OF  MULLOIDES  differs  but  little  from  that  of  the 
percoides,  but  is  easily  distinguished  from  it,  by  the  large  scales 
with  which  the  whole  body  of  these  fishes  is  covered,  and  by  two 
long  cirri  or  beards  which  hang  from  under  the  lo\ver  jaw.     It 
is  composed  of  the  Mullets  properly    so   called,  of  which   two 
species  are   found   in   Europe,   namely:   the  Red    Mullet,   and 
Surmullet. 

9.  The  Red  Mullet,— Muflus  barbatus,— has  the  body  and  tail 
red,  even  after  the  scales  have  been  removed  ;  its  size  is  ordinarily 
from  eight  to  ten  inches.     It  lives  in  many  seas,  particularly   in 
the  Mediterranean,  and  is  much  prized  for  the  excellent  taste  of 
its  flesh.     It  is  celebrated  on  account  of  the  pleasure   which  the 
Romans  took  in  contemplating  the  changes  of  colour  it  displays 
while  dying.    Exorbitant  prices  were  paid  for  Mullets  of  extraor- 
dinary size,  and  at  entertainments,  they  were  brought  to  the  table 
alive,  and  cooked  before  the  eyes  of  the  guests. 

10.  The  Surmullet, — Mullus  surrnuletus, — is  larger  than   the 
Mullet,  and  is  longitudinally  striped  yellow  ;  it  is  more  common 
in  the  ocean,  but  its  flesh  is  less  esteemed. 

11.  The  FAMILY  OF  MAILED-CHEEKS,  —  Buccce   loricate, — is 
recognised  by  the  manner  in  which  the  sub-orbital  bones  are  pro- 
longed to  the  opercula  and  protect  the  cheeks. 

12.  In  this  family  are  placed  the  Fying  Fishes, — Dactylopterus, 
— in  which  the  pectoral  fin-rays  are  very  numerous,  and  united  by 
a  membrane  so  as  _|^«  43 f 

to  form  very  large 

pectoral  fins,  (Fig. 

48.)  which  they  use 

as  wings,  to  sustain 

themselves  in  the  air 

when   they    spring 

out  of  water,  in  the 

hope     of    escaping 

from  their  enemies.  FLYING-FISH  OF  THE  MEDITERRANEAN. 

Voyagers  meet  with  them  in  the  Mediterranean,  but  particularly 

in  the  tropical  seas ;  they  swim  in  numerous  shoals,   which   the 

bonita  and  other  voracious  fishes,  fiercely  pursue,  and  when,  to 

escape  this  danger,  they  spring  into  the  air,  another,  not  less 

great,  awaits  them  ;  for  a  host  of  sea-birds,  such  as  the  Frigate 

and  Phaeton,  also  pursue  them,  and  embrace  this  opportunity^ 

8.  How  is  the  family  of  Mulloides  distinguished? 

9.  What  is  the  Mullet? 

10.  What  is  the  Surmullet  ? 

11.  What  are  the  characters  of  the  family  of  Mailed-cheek? 

12.  What  are  the  characters  and  hdbits  of  Flying-fishes? 


94  SCIENOIDES.— SrAROIDES.— SQU\MIPKNTNES. 

pounce  upon  them.  These  fishes  cannot  go  very  far  in  this  way; 
because  the  drying  of  the  membrane  which  unites  the  rays  of  the 
pectoral  fins  forces  them  soon  to  fall  back  again  into  the  sea. 

J3.  The  FAMILY  OF  SCIENOIDES  resembles  the  Percoides,  but 
is  distinguished  from  them  by  the  absence  of  teeth  on  the  vomer 
and  palate.  Tn  general,  the  bones  of  the  cranium  and  face  are 
cavernous,  and  the  muzzle  is  more  or  less  inflated.  Almost  all 
the  fishes  of  this  group  are  good  to  eat,  and  many  of  them  are 
exquisite.  To  this  family  belong  the  Umbrina,  which  is  a  large, 
good  fish,  the  Corvina  which  is  found  in  the  Mediterranean,  and 
the  Drum-fishes  or  Pagonias  which  inhabit  our  own  coast ;  the 
last  are  remarkable  for  the  noise  they  make,  which  is  compared 
to  that  of  a  drum. 

14.  The  FAMILY  OF  SPAROIDES  has  neither  the  inflated  muzzle, 
nor  spiny  operculum  of  the  preceding;  but  the  palate   is  free  of 
teeth,  and  the  body  is  covered  with  scales  of  greater  or  less  size, 
and  the  mouth  is  not  protractile. 

1 5.  In  the  first  tribe  of  this  family,  called  Spams,  we  find  on 
each  side  of  the  jaws,  round  molar  teeth,  in  form  of  paving  stones, 

Fir    47     (F*9"  4^0 i  sometimes  there  are  also,  in  front  of  the 
jaws,  two  cutting  incisor  teeth,   almost   similar  to 
those  in  man,  (it  is  the  case  in  the  Sargns,)   some 
species  of  which  live  near  the  Mediterranean  coasts: 
at  other  times,  we  only  find  in  front,  some    conical 
or  blunt  teeth.     The  Daurades, — Chrysophr is, — are 
TEETH  OF  A   recognised  by  this  latter  character,  and  by  the  exis- 
SARGUS.       tence  of  at  least  three  rows  of  molar  teeth  in   the 
tipper  jaw.     The  Common  Daurade  is  frequent  on  the  coast  of 
Britany,  as  well  as  in  the  Mediterranean.     Its  body  is  oval,  and 
its  mouth  is  furnished  with  four  rows  of  molar  teeth  above,  and 
five  below.     It  derives  its  name  from  its  golden  colour. 

J  6.  The  small  family  of  MENIDES  is  composed  of  fishes  that 
very  much  resemble  the  Sparoides,  but  which  are  distinguished 
from  them  by  the  mouth,  which  is  very  protractile,  and,  at  the 
will  of  the  animal,  converted  into  a  tube. 

17.  The  FAMILY  OF  SQUAMIPENNES  is  recognised  by  having  the 
soft,  and  sometimes  the  spinous  part  of  the  dorsal  and  anal  fins 
covered  by  scales,  and  difficult  to  distinguish  from  the  mass  of 
the  body,  which  is  compressed  and  also  scaly.  Some  of  the 
Scienoides  also  have  the  fins  incrusted  with  scales:  but  they 

13.  What  arc  the  characters  and  habits  of  the  Scienoides? 
14    How  is  the  family  of  Sparoides  characterised  ? 

15.  How  arc  the  Danrades  recognised? 

16.  How  are  the  Menides  distinguished  from  the  Sparoides  ? 

17.  What  are  the  characters  of  the  Squamipennes  ? 


SHOOTING-FISH.—  ANAS  AS. 95 

never  have  the  teeth  in  the  form  of  flexible  bristles  as  in  most  of 
the  Squamipennes,  and  their  inflated  muzzle  is  often  sufficient  to 
distinguish  them. 

18.  The  Squamipennes,  in  which  the  jaws  are  furnished   with 
several  ranges  of  teeth,  similar  in  conformation  and  arrangement 
to  the  hairs  of  a  brush,    have   been   united   under  the  name  of 
CHJETODON.     Their  mouth  is  very  small,  and  the  dorsal  and  anal 
fins  are  so  covered  with  scales  that  it  is  difficult  to  distinguish  them 
from  the  body :   they  are    very    numerous   in   the   seas  of  hot 
regions,  and  very  remarkable  for  the  beauty  and  variety  of  their 
colours. 

19.  The  CASTAGNOLES, — JJrama, — and  the  ARCHERS, —  Toxotcs, 
&c.  differ  from  the  Chaetodons  in  many  respects,  particularly  in 
having  teeth  on  the  vomer  and  palate.     The  first  have  the  muzzle 
very  short,  the  forehead   vertical  and  a  very  small  number  of 
spinous  rays  concealed  in  the  anterior  portion  of  the  dorsal  fin  : 
they  inhabit  the  Mediterranean.     The  Archers,  or  shooting  fishes 
have  the  forehead  very  oblique,  and  the  dorsal  fin  very  far  back, 
armed  with  strong  spines,  and  not  covered  by  scales.     The  com- 
mon species, —  Toxotcs  jaculator, — inhabits  the  Ganges,  and  the 
seas  of  India  ;  it  is  celebrated  on  account  of  the  manner  in  which 
it  projects  drops  of  water  on  insects  that  frequent  aquatic  plants, 
in  order  to  throw  them  down  and  feed  on  them.     They  thjrow  a 
drop  three  or  four  feet  high,  and  rarely  miss  their  aim.     This 
singular  instinct  is  common  to  a  species  of  Chaetodon  that  inhabits 
the  same  places. 

20.  The  FAMILY  OF  LABYRINTHIFORM  PHARYNGEALS,  is  a  small 
family  remarkable  for  possessing  very  complicated  ceils   above 
the  branchiae.     These  cells,  enclosed  beneath  the  operculurn  and 
formed  by  the  lamellae  of  the  pharyngeal  bones,  serve  to  retain  a 
certain  quantity  of  water  which  keeps  the  branchiae  humid,  when 
the  animal  is  exposed  to  the  air,  and  enables  it  to  live  in  this  way 
for  a  considerable  time:  these  fishes  are  in  the  habit   of  leaving 
the  rivers  and  pools,  their  ordinary  abode,  and  going   to   con- 
siderable distances  by  crawling  on  the  grass  or  on  the  land. 
Those  that  possess  this  labyrinthiform  apparatus  in  the  highest 
degree  of  complication,  and  which  have  received  the  name  of 
ANABAS,  not  only  remain  a  long  time  out  of  water,  but  also,    as 
we  are  assured,  climb  trees.     Most  of  the  fishes  of  this   family 
inhabit  India  and  China. 

18.  What  are  the  Chaetodous  ? 

19.  What  are  Castagnoles  ?     What  are  the  characters  of  the  Shooting- 

20.  What  are  the  characters  of  the  Labyrinthiform  pharyngcals  ?    What 
are  their  habits  ? 


96  MACKERELS. 


21.  The  FAMILY  OF  SCOMBEROIDES  is  the  most  important  of  this 
order ;  it  comprises  many  fishes  of  considerable  size,  the    taste 
of  which  is  excellent,  and  the  fecundity  so  inexhaustible,  that,  in 
spite  of  the  continued  destruction  to  which  they  are  subject,  they 
return  yearly  in  immense  legions   to   the   same   localities,  and 
offer  themselves  as  a  certain  prey  to  the  activity  of  fishermen,  and 
to  the  industry  of  those  who  make  it  a  business  to  prepare   and 
preserve  them.     The  Tunny,  the  Bonita,  and  Mackerel,   which 
are  so  useful  to  man,  and  form  a  type  of  this  family,  are   easily 
distinguished  from  other  Acanthopterygians ;  but  many   of  the 
species  that  are  naturally  grouped  around  them  possess  none  of 
the  marks  which  make  them  known,  and  establish  such  close 
relations  with  other  families,  that  the  limits  of  the  latter  are  diffi- 
cult to  define.     In  general,  the   Scomberoides   have  very  small 
scales,  and  a  large  part  of  the  skin  smooth ;  they   have   neither 
spines  nor  teeth  on  the  pieces  of  the  opercula ;  their  vertical  fins 
are  not  scaly;  the  tail,  and  the  caudal  fin  especially,  are  ordinarily 
large  and  very  vigorous.     Most  of  them  have  the  sides  of  the 
tail  carinate  or  armed  with  scales  in  form   of  a   shield ;  and   in 
many,  the  posterior  rays  of  the  second  dorsal,  and  anal  fins,  are 
separated,  and  form  so  many  fake  fins,  or  spurious  fins. 

22.  Those  which  possess  these  last  characters,  and  have  the 
dorsal  fin  continuous,  form  the  tribe  of  SCOMBER.     Their  body  is 
in  the  form  of  a  spindle,  the  tail  is  short,  and  more  or  less  carinate 
laterally,  but  not  armed  with  shields,  and  the  caudal  fin  is   very 
large :  they  are  excellent  swimmers.     This  family  includes   the 
Mackerel,  the  Tunny,  the  Sword-Fish,  &c. 

23.  The  MACKERELS, — Scumbe? , — are  distinguished   from  the 
other  Scomberoides  by  the  uniformly   small  and  smooth  scales 
with  which  the  body  is  covered,  by  two  small  cutaneous  crests 
situate  upon  the  sides  of  the  tail,  and  by  a  vacant  space  that  sepa- 
rates the  two  dorsal  fins. 

24  The  Common  Mackerel, — Scomber  scombrus, — has  a  blue 
back,  marked  with  undulating  black  stripes,  and  five  false  fins. 
It  is  a  migratory  fish,  and  at  certain  seasons  abounds  on  the 
coasts  of  the  United  States,  and  Europe.  The  importance  of 
the  mackerel  fishery  may  be  estimated  from  the  fact  that  in  the 
state  of  Massachusetts,  no  less  than  308,462  barrels  were  packed 
during  the  year  1830.  On  the  western  coasts  of  England,  this 
fishery  is  conducted  with  nets  at  night  by  torch-light ;  the  fisher- 

21.  What  are  the  characters  of  the  Scomberoides  ? 

22.  What  are  the  characters  of  the  tribe  of  Scomber? 

23.  What  are  the  characters  of  Mackerel? 

24.  What  are  the  characters  of  the  common  Mackerel? 


BON  IT  A.  97 


men  spread  themselves  over  several  leagues  and  cast  their  nets, 
which  are  sometimes  more  than  a  league  in  extent,  in  the  direc- 
tion pursued  by  the  shoals  of  mackerel.  The  meshes  of  the  net 
are  of  a  size  to  receive  the  head  of  a  moderate  sized  fish,  but 
arrest  it  by  the  fins,  and  when  it  endeavours  to  extricate  itself, 
its  gills  become  entangled,  and  it  is  held  prisoner.  Mackerels  are 
also  caught  by  the  hook  and  line. 

25.  The  genus  of  Ttnuuj, —  77i;y/m?/s? — is  closely  approximated 
to  that  of  the  Mackerel,  from  which  it  is  distinguished  by  a  sort  of 
corselet  around  the  thorax  formed  of  scales  which  are  larger  and 
not  so  smooth  as  those  on  the  rest  of  the  body. 

26.  The  Common  Tunny, — Scomber  thynnus, — resembles  the 
mackerel  in  the  general  form  of  its  body;  but  it  is  rounder,  and 
attains  a  larger  size  ;  in  general,  its  length  is  three  or  four  feet, 
but  sometimes  it  attains  to  more  than  fifteen.     This  fish  is  some- 
times seen  in  the  ocean;  but  it  abounds  especially  in  the  Medi-* 
terranean  ;  at  certain  periods  it  coasts  along  the  shores  in  innu- 
merable legions,  and  gives  rise  to  very  important  fisheries,  which 
have  been  carried  on  in  the  Mediterranean   from   the   remotest 
antiquity,  and  constitute  a  chief  source  of  the  wealth  of  Provence, 
Sardinia,  &c      One  of  the  most  remarkable  modes  of  taking  the 
Tunny,  is  by  what  is  termed  the  Madrayup.    This  name  is  given 
to  a  sort  of  labyrinth  constructed  of  nets  stretched  out  vertically 
in  the  sea,  and  so  arranged  as  to  form  a  series  of  chambers,  open 
from  the  land  side  by  a  sort  of  door,  and  united  by  another  net 
which  bars  the  passage  and  arrests  the  tunnies  in  their  periodical 
course  along  the  shore.     These  fishes  at  first  pass  between  the 
shore,  and  the  chambers  destined  to  receive  them  ;  but,  arrested 
by  the  net  mentioned  above,  they  turn  towards  the  high  sea,  and 
enter  the  Jabyrinth  where  they  become  confounded,  and   fall  an 
easy  prey. 

27.  On  the  coast  of  the  United  States  they  do  not  run  in  shoals. 
They  are  occasionally  taken  in  baiting  other  more  common  fishes. 
In  Europe,  the  flesh  of  the  Tunny  is  very   much   esteemed,  it 
resembles  beef,  and  is  preserved  either  by  the  aid  of  salt,  or  by 
boiling  and  immersing  in  oil. 

28.  The  Bonitdi — Scomber  pelamyS)— -celebrated  on  account 
of  its  pursuit  of  Flying-fishes  in  the  tropics,  is  a  species  of  Tunny, 
which  may  be  recognised  by  the  longitudinal  brown  stripes  with 
which  its  belly  is  marked. 

25.  How  is  the  genus  Tunny  distinguished  from  that  of  Mackerel  ? 
2G.  What  are  the  characters  of  the  common  Tunny  ? 

27.  Are  Tunnies  caught  in  the  waters  of  the  United  States  ? 

28.  What  are  the  characters  of  the  Bonita? 


98    SWORD-FISH.— PILOT-FISH.— RIBBON  FISH.— SURGEON.^ 

29.  The    Tribe  of  Sword-fishes,  is   distinguished    from    all 

p.  ,g  other  fishes  of  the  same  family,  by 
the  beak,  or  long  sword-like  point, 
which  terminates  the  upper  jaw, 
(Fig.  49.)  and  forms  a  powerful 
weapon  with  which  these  fishes 
SWORB-FISH.  attack  the  largest  marine  animals. 

30.  The  Sword-fishes  properly   so   called,  —  Xiphias, —  are 
without   ventral   fins,   and  the   prolongation   of  the   muzzle  is 
flattened  horizontally,  and  is  cutting  like  a  broad  sword   blade. 
But  one  species  is  known, — Xiphias  gladius, — which   is   often 
fifteen  or  even  more  feet  in  length ;  it  is  more  common   in  the 
Mediterranean  than  in  the  Atlantic.     The  flesh,  which  is   white 
and  compact,  is  delicate.     This  fish  is  not  uncommon  near  our 
own  coasts,  and  is  often  taken  with  the  harpoon. 

<  31.  Another  tribe,  called  Centronotus,  is  characterised  by  the 
absence  of  the  membrane  that  unites  the  rays  of  the  first  dorsal 
fin,  which  consequently  remain  free.  Among  other  fishes  be- 
longing  to  this  tribe  is  the  Pilot-fish, — (Naucrates,  or  Scomber 
duct  or,} —  so  called  from  its  habit  of  following  vessels,  to  seize 
what  may  be  thrown  overboard,  and  also  from  the  habit  attributed 
to  it,  of  conducting  the  Shark,  which,  directed  by  the  same  instinct, 
also  very  frequently  accompanies  vessels  at  sea  with  great  perse- 
verance. They  have  a  fusiform  body,  very  small  scales,  nearly 
the  same  as  the  mackerel,  and  cartilaginous  carinae  on  the  sides 
of  the  tail  like  the  Tunny.  The  common  species  is  about  a  foot 
long. 

32.  The  FAMILY  OF  T^ENIOIDES  is  composed  of  Acanthoptery- 
gians,  which   approximate   the  Scomberoides ;    they  also   have 
very  small  scales,  but  are  distinguished  by  an  extremely  elongated 
body,   very  much  flattened  on  the  sides,  the  form  of  which  has 
obtained  for  them  the  name  of  RIBBON-FISHES. 

33.  The  FAMILY  OF  THEUTYES  also  resembles  the  Scomberoides. 
It  is  composed  of  a  small  number  of  fishes,  the  body  of  which  is 
compressed  and  oblong,  with  a  small  mouth,  but  slightly,  if  at 
all   protractile,  and  armed  in  each  jaw,  with  a  single  row  of 
cutting  teeth  ;  the  palate  and  tongue  are  without  teeth,  and  there 
is  but  one   dorsal   tin.     The  Theutyes  are  herbivorous.     The 
ACANTHURI,  called  Surgeons,  on  account   of  a  large,  moveable 

29.  How  is  the  tribe  of  Sword-fishes  distinguished? 

30.  What  are  the  characters  of  the  Sword-fish  properly  so  called  ? 

31.  What  is  the  Pilot  Fish? 

32.  How  are  the  Tsenioides  distinguished  ? 

33.  What  are  the  characters  of  the  family  of  Theutyes?     What  are  the 
Acanthuri  ? 


MALACOPTERYGIANS. 99 

spine,  sharp  as  a  lancet,  which  they  have  on  each  side  of  the 
tail,  with  which  they  inflict  severe  wounds  on  those  who  impru- 
dently take  hold  of  them,  belong  to  this  family. 

34.  The  FAMILY  OF  MUGILOIDES,  is  distinct  from  all  the  pre- 
ceding, and  is  characterised  by  an  almost  cylindrical  body, 
covered  with  large  scales,  a  slightly  depressed  head,  and  short 
muzzle,  a  transverse  mouth  armed  with  extremely  fine  teeth, 
two  separate  dorsal  fins,  ventral  fins  attached  behind  the  pectoral, 
&c.  They  constitute  a  single  genus,  the  Mullets,  —  MUGIL,-- 
which  are  much  esteemed. 


LESSON   VII. 

ORDER  OF  ABDOMINAL  MALACOPTERYGIANS. —  Division. 

FAMILY  OF  CYPRINOIDES.—  Carp — Gold-Jish.-*— Gudgeon.— *Tenck, 

FAMILY  OF  ESOCES. — Pike. — Exocets,  or  Flying -fishes. 

FAMILY  OF  SILUROIDES. — Electric  Silurvs,  fyc. 

FAMILY  OF  SALMONIDES. — Common  Salmon. — Salmon  Fishing. — 

Trout. —Smelt. 
FAMILY  OF  CLUPE^I. —  Herrings. — Herring  Fishing. — Shad. — 

Sardines, — Jlnchovies,  fyc. 

ORDER    OF   MALACOPTERYGII    ADD  OIYIIN  ALES. 

1.  This  division  is  composed  of  Osseous  Fishes  that  have  the 
upper  jaw  moveable,  simple  pectinate  branchiae,  the  fin-rays  car- 
tilaginous :  their  ventral  fins  are  suspended  beneath  the  abdomen 
and  behind  the  pectoral  fins,  without  being  attached  to  the  bones 
of  the  shoulder. 

2.  It  is  composed  of  five  families,  namely :  the  Cyprinoides, 
comprising  those  fishes  that  resemble  Carp;    the   Esoces,    or 
Pikes,  &c.;  the  Siluroides;  the  Salmonides,  the  type  of  which  is 
the  common  Salmon  ;  and  the   Clupece,  or  Herrings,  and  other 
fishes  having  the  same  organization.    They  may  be  distinguished 
by  the  following  characters : 

34.  What  are  the  characters  of  the  family  of  Mugiloides  ? 

1.  What  are  the  general  characters  of  the  Abdominal  Malacopterygians  ? 

2.  How  is  this  order  divided  ? 


100 


FAMILY  OF  CYPRINOIDES. 


I   f  Without  an 

g      adipose  fin  on 

the  back. 


f  Margin  of 
the  upper  jaw 
formed  almost 
entirely  by  the 
intermaxillary 
bones. 


(Families.) 

f     Mouth  small,  weak,    ") 
and  often  unprovided   j 
with      teeth,     except  j>  CYPRINOIDKS 
around    the   pharynx.   | 
Body  scaly.  J    • 


Mouth  large,  and 
armed    with     strong, 

pointed  teeth. 

Body  ordinarily 

covered      with      very 

small  scales. 


Margin  of  the  upper  jaw  formed  in 
the  middle  by  the  intermaxillary  bones, 
and  on  the  sides  by  the  maxillary  bones. 

Body  scaly. 


Having  an    f  Body  scaly,  -i.    ..... 

adipose  fin  on<{ 
the  back.*     ^  Body  unprovided  with  true  scales, 


ESOCES. 


-, 


SALMONIDES. 


}•  SJLUROIPES. 


*  We  give  the  name  of  adipose  Jin  to  any  fin  that  is  not  sustained  by  fin- 
rays,  and  only  consists  of  a  fold  of  skin  filled  with  fat. 

3.  The  CYPRINOIDES,  —  (Cyprinidce,)  —  have  a    slightly    cleft 
mouth,  weak  jaws,  most  frequently  without  teeth,  and    a   scaly 
body,  without  an  adipose  dorsal  fin.     They  are  the  least  carnivo- 
rous of  the  fishes. 

4.  One  of  the  principal  tribes  of  this  family  is  the   CYPRINUS, 
which  is  composed  of  fresh-water  fishes,  and  includes  the  Com- 
mon Carp,  the  Gold-jish,  the  Barbel,  the  Gudgeon,  the    Tench, 
&c.     This  group  is  characterised  by  the  absence  of  teeth  in  the 
jaws,  by  the  existence  of  a  single  dorsal  fin,  and  ordinarily  the 
scales  are  large.     Most  of  these  fishes  feed  on  grains,  herbs,  &c. 
They  have  in  the  back  part  of  the  mouth  a  masticatory  apparatus 
for  crushing  their  food. 

5.  The  Carps,  —  Cyprinus,  —  are  distinguished    by   their   long 
dorsal  fin  which,  as  well  as  the  anal,  is  provided  with  a  more  or 
less  strong  spine  for  the  second  fin-ray. 

6.  The  Common    Carp,  —  Cijprinus   carpio,  —  is   found   in   all 
Europe,  but  has  not  yet  been  met  with  in  the  United  States.     It 
delights  in  tranquil  waters,  and  is  easily  reared  in  rivers  and  ponds; 
the  duration  of  its  life  is  very  long,  and  it  is  exceedingly  prolific. 


3.  What  are  the  characters  of  the  family  of  Cyprinoides? 

4.  What  are  the  characters  and  habits  of  the  tribe  of  Cyprinus  ? 

5.  How  are  the  Carps  distinguished  ? 

6.  Where  is  the  common  Carp  found  ?     What  are  its  habits  ? 


Stt.— GUDGEON.— TENCH.— BREAM.      101 


When  young,  the  growth  of  Carps  is  very  rapid,  and  at  six  years 
old  they  weigh  about  three  pounds ;  they  often  attain  three  or 
four  feet  in  length.  During  the  winter,  they  bury  themselves  in 
the  mud,  and  pass  many  months  without  eating. 

7.  The   Golden  Carp,  or    Gold-fish, — Cyprinus   auratus, — is 
reared  in  garden  ponds,  and  vases,  on  account  of  the  beauty  of 
its  colours,  which  are  a  mixture  of  black,  a  beautiful  golden  red 
and  silvery  white. 

8.  The  Barbels,  —  Barbus, —  resemble  the  Carps,  but    their 
dorsal  fin  is  shorter.     The  Coj/imon  Barbel,  —  Cyprinus  barbus, 
— abounds  in  clear  running  waters,  and  sometimes  attains  more 
than  ten  feet  in  length. 

9.  The    Gudyeons,  —  Gobio, — also   resemble   the   Carps;  but 
they  have  no  bony  spine,  (Fly.  50.)  in  the  anterior  part  of  the 
dorsal  and  anal  fins  ;  the  mouth 

is  surrounded  with  cirri,  or 
beards.  There  is  one  species 
which  abounds  in  the  rivers  of 
France,  and  though  small,  is 
much  esteemed  for  its  taste.  GUDGEON. 

10.  The  Tenches, —  Tinea, — in  addition  to  the   characters   of 
the  Gudgeons,  have  very  small  scales,  and  very  short  cirri.    The 
Common  Tench, — Cyprinus  tinea, — inhabits  stagnant  waters  in 
France  ;  it  is  generally  of  a  yellowish  brown,  attains  about  a  foot 
in  length,  and  is  less  esteemed  than  the  Carp. 

11.  The   Breams, — Mramis, — have   neither  spinous  fin-rays 
nor  cirri ;  their  dorsal  fin  is  short,  but  the  anal  is  long.     Two 
species  are  found  in  France.     In  the  United  States  they  are 
small. 

1 2.  The  Shiner, — Cyprinus  crysolencas, — is  among  the  smallest 
of  fresh-water  fishes,  being  usually  less  than  an  inch  in   length. 
Shiners  are  the  prey  of  their  larger  neighbours,  and  the  sport  of 
school-boys,  who  angle  for  them  with  a  crooked  pin. 

1 3.  The  Minnow, — Cyprinus  atronasus, — is  another  of  the  very 
small  fishes,  scarcely  exceeding  an  inch  in  length.     It  is  found 
in  the  brooks  in  every  part  of  New  England  and  the  Middle 
States. 

7.  What  is  the  Gold-fish  ? 

8.  What  are  Barbels  1 

9.  What  are  the  characters  of  Gudgeons  ? 

10.  How  are  Tenches  characterised  ? 

1 1.  What  are  the  characters  of  Breams  ? 

12.  What  is  the  Shiner?  • 

13.  What  is  the  Minnow  ? 

8* 


102 ROACH.— SUCKER.— PIKE. 

14.  The  Roaches, — Leuciscus, — form   several  species,    all  of 
which  are  small.     The  Common  Roach,  —  Leuciscus  vulyaris, — 
acquires  seven  or  eight  inches  in  length,  and  is    remarkable   for 
its  brilliant  scales,  which  are  easily  detached ;  they  are  silvery  on 
the  sides,  and  under  parts  of  the  body.     The  nacreous  substance 
which  gives  them  this  metallic  appearance,  is  employed   in  the 
arts  for  the  manufacture  of  false  pearls. 

15.  The  Suckers,  or  Loaches, —  Cobitis, — have^  mouth  unpro- 
vided with  teeth ;  but  it  is  surrounded  by  lips  fitted  for  sucking. 
Their  head  is  small ;  the  body  is  elongated,  covered  with  small 
scales,  and  enveloped  in  a  mucosity  or  slime ;  their  ventral  fins  are 
very  far  back,  and  over  them  is  found  a  single  small  dorsal  fin. 

16.  The  FAMILY  OF  ESOCES,  which   comprises  the  Pikes  and 
analogous  fishes,  has  no  adipose  fin ;  it  is  distinguished  from  the 
preceding  by  the  conformation  of  the  mouth,  and  the   existence 
of  teeth. 

17.  The  PIKES, — JEsoz,— are  recognised  by  their  oblong,  obtuse, 
broad,  depressed  muzzle ;  they  have  but  one  dorsal  fin  which  is 
placed   opposite  to  the  anal,  (Fig.  51.)  and  nearly    the  whole 
entrance  of  the  mouth,  as  well  as  the  jaws,  are  full    of   teeth. 

The  Common  Pike, — Esox 
lucius,  —  is  found  in  the 
fresh  waters  of  Europe  and 
North  America.  It  is  less 
common  in  the  south  than 
P1KE>  in  the  north,  and  is  every 

where  sought  for  its  flesh,  which  is  savoury,  and  of  easy  digestion. 
It  is  the  most  voracious  and  most  destructive  of  all  the  fresh 
water  fishes ;  it  devours  with  avidity,  frogs,  young  ducks,  and 
all  the  fishes  that  come  in  its  way.  It  often  seizes  animals  larger 
than  itself,  and  its  presence  in  a  pond  is  sometimes  enough  to 
depopulate  it  in  a  short  time.  Pikes  four  or  five  feet  long,  are 
not  rare  in  the  great  lakes  of  northern  Europe,  and  one  of  still 
larger  size  has  been  seen.  In  1497,  a  Pike  was  caught  at 
Kaiserlautern,  near  Manheim,  which  was  nearly  nineteen  feet  in 
length,  weighing  three  hundred  and  fifty  pounds.  This  gianf 
was  as  remarkable  for  its  great  age,  as  for  its  size :  for  then 
was  found  upon  it  a  gilt  copper  ring  bearing  this  inscription  . 
"  I  am  the  first  fish  that  was  thrown  into  this  pond,  by  the  hands 
of  Frederick  II.  October  5,  1230;"  it  was  consequently,  at  least 

1 4.  What  are  Roaches  ?     For  what  purpose  are  their  scales  used  ? 

15.  What  are  the  characters  of  Loaches? 

16.  What  fishes  compose  the  family  of  Esoces? 

17.  How  are  the  Pikes  chaiacterised  ?    What  are  the  habits  of  the  com- 
mon  Pike  ? 


ELECTRIC  SILURUS.   *  103 


two  hundred  and  sixty  seven  years  old.  The  growth  of  these 
fishes  is  very  rapid  ;  the  first  year  they  are  often  ten  or  eleven 
inches  in  length,  and  in  the  second,  fifteen. 

The  Sea  I'ike, — Esox  belong — also  known  as  the  gar -fish, 
spit-fish,  and  bill-fish,  belongs  to  this  family. 

18.  EXOCETS,  (or  Fly  ing -Fishes,   as   they,   as    well   as   the 
Dactylopterus,  (Page  93.)  are  also  commonly  called,)—  Exocetus, 
— belong  to  the  same  family  as  the  Pikes,  and  are  recognised  at 
first  sight  by  the  excessive  length  of  their  pectoral  fins,   which 
are  .long  enough  to  serve  them  as  wings,  and  sustain  them  for  a 
few  seconds  in  the  air.     They  swim  in  shoals,  and  are  pursued 
by  legions  of  voracious  fishes,  to  escape  from  which  they  spring 
out  of  water ;  but  they  soon  fall  again,  because  their  wings  only 
serve  them  as  a  parachute ;  and,  while  on  their  aerial  course,  they 
become  the  prey  of  sea-birds,  as  well  as  of  sharks  and  other  fishes. 

19.  The   FAMILY  OF  SILUROIDES  differs   from  all   other  abdo- 
minal malacopterygians,  in  the  absence  of  true  scales.     The  skin 
is  naked,  or  furnished  with  bony  plates.     The  dorsal  and  pectoral 
fins  have  almost  always,  a  strong  articulated  spine  for  the  first 
fin-ray,  and,  as  in  the  next  family,  there  is  often  one  adipose  fin 
posteriorly;    and   the  mouth    also   has    some    peculiarities    of 
structure. 

20.  Most  of  these  fishes  belong  to  the  tribe  of  SILURUS,  which 
is  recognised  by  the  naked  skin,  by  the  mouth  cleft  at  the  end  of 
the  muzzle,  and  by  a  strong  spine  that,  in  general,  constitutes  the 
first  ray  of  the  pectoral  fin,  which  is  articulated  with  the  shoulder, 
and  so  arranged,  that  it  can  be  approximated  to  the  body,   or 
raised   perpendicularly  to  it,  and    thus  used   as  a   dangerous 
weapon.     The  Si/uri  properly  so  called,  have  a  small  fin  on  the 
fore  part  of  the  back,   sustained  by  rays.     One   species   of  this 
genus,  the  only  one  in  France,  is  the  largest  fresh  water   fish   of 
Europe.     Its  length  ordinarily  exceeds  six  feet,  and  its  weight 
is   often  three  hundred  pounds.     The   Cat-fish  belongs  to  this 
tribe. 

21.  The  Malapteruri  differ  but  little  from   the  Siluri,  from 
which  they  are  distinguished  by  the  absence  of  a  rayed  fin   on 
the  back,  and  by  some  other  characters.     The  famous   S Hunts 
clectricm  of  the   Nile,   is   the   only   species   belonging    to   this 
division  :  like  the  Torpedo  and  Gymnotus,  it  possesses  the  power 

18.  What   are   the   characters  and   habits  of  the  fishes    ot    the  genus 
Exocetus? 

19.  What  are  the  characters  of  the  family  of  Silurcides  ? 

20.  What  are  the  characters  of  the  tribe  of  Silurus  ? 

21.  What  are  the  characters  of  the  Silurus  elcctricus?     Where  is   the 
electric  organ  situate  ? 


104      ' SALMON—SALMON  FISHERY. 

of  giving  strong  electric  shocks ;  it  appears  that  the  seat  of  this 
faculty  is  in  a  peculiar  tissue,  situate  between  the  muscles  and 
the  skin,  and  having  the  appearance  of  a  fatty  cellular  structure. 
This  tish  which  inhabits  the  Senegal  as  well  as  the  Nile,  is 
eighteen  or  twenty  inches  in  length.  The  Arabs  call  it  raasch, 
which  signifies  thunder. 

22.  The  FAMILY  OF  SALMONIDES,  of  which  the  Salmons  are  the 
type,  are  characterised  by  a  scaly  body,  and  a  first  dorsal  fin 
with  soft  rays,  followed  by  a  second  which  is  small  and  adipose, 
that  is,  formed  of  a  fold  of  skin  filled  with  fat,  and  without  rays. 

23.  The  most  interesting  genus  of  this  family,  is  that   of  the 
Salmons, — Sal-mo,  —  which    have  the   mouth   more  completely 
armed    with   teeth   than   any   other   fish ;    they    are    naturally 
voracious,  and  ascend  very  far  up  rivers  to  deposit  their  eggs ; 
their  body  is  almost  always  spotted,   and   their   flesh    is    much 
esteemed 

24.  The  Common  Salmon, —  Sahno  salar — is  the  largest  species 
of  the  genus ;  its  flesh  is  red,  its  body  elongated,  and   flattened 
laterally,  and  it  often  attains  six  feet  in  length.     It   is   found   in 
great  numbers  in  all  the  Arctic  seas,  whence  it  ascends  rivers  in 
large  shoals  every  spring.     It  swims  with  great  rapidity,  and  can 
clear  at  a  leap,  obstacles  in  its  passage,  twelve  or  fifteen   feet   in 
height.     When  they   fall  in    with   a  cave,  or  some  other  place 
favourable  for  spawning,  they  deposit  their  eggs  in  a.  hole  in  the 
sand,  and  then  permit  themselves  to  be  carried  by  the  current  to 
the  sea,  where  they  go,  to  acquire  strength  to  return   again   the 
following  year.     Young  salmons  are  therefore  born  in  the  rivers, 
but  their  growth  is  rapid,  and  when  they  attain  the  size  of  about 
twelve  inches,  they  descend  to  the  sea  like  the  adults. 

25.  The  salmon  fishery,  in  many  countries,  forms  a  very   im- 
portant branch  of  industry.     In  Norway,  as  many  as  300  of  these 
fishes  have  been  caught  at  a  single  cast  of  the  net ;  and   in  the 
river  Tweed  as  many  as  700  ;  the   time   selected   for   catching 
them  is  when  they  ascend  rivers  to  spawn,  for  after  they   have 
deposited  their  eggs  and  are  on  their  way  to  the  sea,  they   are 
lean,  and  their  flesh  is  of  little  value.     In  general,  this  fishery  is 
conducted  with  nets  stretched  across  the  river,  and  so  arranged, 
that  the  salmons  are  caught  in  the  meshes :  but  sometimes,  in 
Scotland,  for  example,  they  are  taken  with  a  spear  or   harpoon. 
They  are  also  caught  with  a  hook  and  line. 

22.  What  are  the  characters  of  the  family  of  Salmonides? 

23.  What  are  the  general  characters  of  tlie  genus  of  Salmons  ? 

24.  What  are  the  characters  of  the  common  Salmon?  What  are  its  habits  ? 

25.  What  is  the  mode  of  catching  Salmon  ? 


TROUT.— SM  ELT.— GRAYLING. 105 

26.  The  Salmon  Trout, — Salmo  trutta,—](ke  the   salmon  has 
reddish  flesh,  and  the  caudal  fin  crescent  shaped :  but  it  has  on  all 
the  under  parts  of  the  body,  a  great  number  of  black  spots,  ocellate, 
or  in  form  of  an  X ;  it  sometimes  weighs  eight  or  ten  pounds. 

27.  The  Common  Trout, — Sulmo  fario, — has  the  caudal  fin 
but  little  notched,  and  its  flesh  is  white:  (Fig.   52.)  it  is   also 
distinguished  by  the  brown  spots  on  the  back,  and  red  spots  sur- 
rounded by  a  bright  circle   on  ^,  52 

the   flanks,   which    are     on    a 

ground,   the    shade    of   which 

varies  from  white   and  golden 

yellow,  to  a  deep  brown.     It  is 

commonly  from  twelve  to  fifteen 

inches  in  length,  weighing  about 

a  pound;  but   it   is   sometimes 

met   with  of  larger  size.     It  inhabits  rivers   in  the   northern 

parts  of  Europe  and  the  United    States.     Many  other  river 

Trouts  are  known,  which  are  chiefly  found  in  lakes  and  mountain 

streams,  and  which  vary  in  their  size  and  colours  in  each  locality ; 

some  naturalists  regard  them  as  different  species,  and  others  look 

upon  them  as  simple  varieties,  resulting  from  age,  food,  and  the 

quality  of  the  waters  in  which  they  dwell. 

28.  The  SMELTS,  —  Osmerus,  —  also  belong   to   the  family  of 
Salmonides  ;  they  differ  from  the  preceding  in  the   almost  total 
absence  of  teeth  on  the  vomer,  in  the  number  of  the   branchios- 
tegous  rays,  which  is  eight  in  place  of  ten,  and  in  the  absence  of 
spots  on  the  body.     They  are  caught  in  the  sea  at  the  mouths  of 
large  rivers;  their  flesh  is   excellent.     The  Common  Smelt, — 
Osmerus  eperlanus, — is  small :  it  is  ornamented   with   the   most 
dazzling  silvery  and  light  green  tints.    The  skin  is  so  exceedingly 
thin  that,  under  the  microscope,  the  blood  may  be  seen  circulating 
in  the  cutaneous  vessels. 

29.  The  GRAYLINGS, — Thymallus, — have  jaws  like  the  Trout; 
but  the  mouth  is  but  slightly  cleft,  and  the  teeth  are  very  fine. 
They  have  the  habits  of  the  Trout,  and  their  flesh  is   equally 
esteemed.  The  Common  Grayling, — Salmo  thymallus, — is  striped 
blackish  longitudinally  :  it  attains  a  size  of  eighteen  inches,  and 
in  the  spring,  ascends  several  rivers  of  France  and  Italy.     It  is 
especially  met  with  in  the  pure,  limpid  waters  of  the  mountains 
of  America  and  Switzerland. 


26.  What  are  the  characters  of  the  Salmon  Trout? 

27.  What  are  the  characters  of  the  common  Trout  ?     Where  is  it  found  ? 

28.  What  are  Smelts?     What  are  the  characters  ui'  the  common  Smelt  ? 

29.  What  are  the  characters  of  Graylings  ? 


106  HERRINGS. 


The  family  of  Salmonides  comprises  a  great  number  of  other 
genera. 

30.  The  FAMILY  OF  CLUPEJE  has  no  adipose  fin  like  the  pre- 
ceding ;  the  upper  jaw  is  formed,  as  in  the  trouts,  in  the  middle, 
by  intermaxillary  bones  without  pedicles,  and  on  the  sides  by  the 
maxillary  bones.     The  body  of  these  fishes  is  always  scaly,  and 
most  of  them  ascend  rivers. 

31.  The  most  important  tribe  of  this   family  is   that  of  the 
HERRINGS,  characterised  by  narrow,  short,  intermaxillary  bones, 
and  by  the  inferior  edge  of  the  body  being  compressed,  the  scales 
of  which  are  so  arranged  as  to  form  notches  like  the  teeth  of  a 
saw.     These  fishes  are  remarkable  for  the   fineness  and  great 
number  of  their  bones,  as  well  as   for  the   peculiarities   of  their 
branchial  apparatus. 

32.  HERRINGS  PROPERLY  so  CALLED, — Clupea, — have   a  mode- 
rate sized  mouth,  without  a  notch  in  front. 

33.  The  Common  Herring, — Clupea  harengus^ — is  ordinarily 
eight  or  nine  inches  in  length,  the  head  small  and  compressed, 
the  mouth  slightly  cleft,  the  lower  jaw  longer  than  the  upper,  the 
inferior  edge  of  the  body  slightly  carinate,  the  scales  large,   and 
slightly  adherent,  the  back  bluish,  and  the  belly   silvery.     It  in- 
habits the  northern  seas,  and  arrives  every  year  in  innumerable 
legions  upon  different  parts  of  the  coasts  of  Europe,  Asia,  and 
America,  but  does  not  go  very  far  south  of  the  fortieth   degree 
of  north  latitude.     Some  naturalists  suppose  that  all    herrings 
periodically  retire  beneath  the  ice  of  the  polar  seas,  and  set  out 
from  this  common  retreat  in  an  immense  column,  which,  dividing, 
spreads  along  almost  all  the  coasts  north  of  the  parallel  above 
named ;  but  this  distant  emigration,  and  this  common  rendezvous 
in  the  arctic  regions,  are  far  from  being  demonstrated,  and  there 
is  reason  to  believe  that  such  is  not  the  case. 

34.  In  the  months  of  April  and  May,  herrings  begin  to  appear 
in  the  waters  of  the  Shetland  Islands,  and  towards  the  end  of 
June,  or  in  July,  they  arrive  in  incalculable   numbers,  forming 
vast  and  dense  shoals,  which  sometimes  extend  over  the  surface 
of  the  sea  for  several  leagues,  and  hundreds  of  feet  in  thickness. 
In  September,  they  arrive  on  the  coasts  of  Great  Britain.     From 
that  region  they  cross  the  Atlantic  in  a  south  westerly  direction, 
and  make  their  appearance  on  the  coast  of  Georgia,  about  the 

30.  What  are  the  characters  of  the  Family  of  Clupeae  ? 

31.  What  are  the- characters  of  the  tribe  of  Herrings? 

32.  How  are  Herrings  properly  so  called  distinguished? 

33.  What  are  the  characters  of  the  common  Herring  ? 

34.  Where  are  Herrings  found  ? 


SARDINES.  107 


last  of  January;  detachments  then  begin  to  move  eastward,  and 
by  the  end  of  April,  the  whole  American  sea-board  is  lined  with 
them. 

35.  The  herring  fishery  is  one  of  great  importance.     It  occu- 
pies every  year  entire  fleets,  and  formerly,  it  was  carried  on  with 
still  greater  activity.     About  the  middle  of  the  17th  century,  the 
Dutch  employed  not  less  than  two  thousand  vessels,  and  it  is 
estimated   that   eight   hundred   thousand   persons,  in  the    two 
provinces  of  Holland  and  West  Friesland,  derived  their  living 
from  this  branch  of  industry  alone.     The  Norwegians,  the  Ameri- 
cans, the  Scotch,  the  English,  and  even  the  French  embarked  in 
this  fishery  in  considerable  numbers,  and  though  its  importance 
is  now  considerably  lessened,  it  is  still  a  great  source  of  wealth 
to  the  people  bordering  the  northern  seas. 

36.  This  fishery  is  ordinarily  conducted  with  nets  five  or  six 
hundred  fathoms  in  length,  the  lower  edge  of  which    is  loaded 
with  lead,  while  the  upper  edge  is  made  to  float  on  the  surface  by 
means  of  buoys ;  the  meshes  are  just  large  enough  to  receive  the 
head  of  a  herring  as  far  as  the  gills,  but  not  allow  the  pectoral  fins 
to  pass.     The  fish,  in  endeavouring  to  overcome  the  obstacle  that 
this  great  vertical  partition  opposes  to  its  passage,  is  thus  meshed, 
and,  not  being  able  to  advance  or  recede,  owing  to  the  gills  and 
fins,  he  remains  a  prisoner,  until  the  fishermen  draw  the  net  on 
board.     This   is  termed  a  gill-net.     The   number  of  herrings, 
taken  in  this  way,  is  sometimes  so  great,  that  the  net  bursts  under 
their  weight.    Generally  this  fishery  is  carried  on  at  some  distance 
from  the  shore,  and,  for  this  reason,  the  herrings  are  salted  on 
board.     It  is  a  prejudice  to  suppose  that  the  herrings  caught  on 
our  own  coasts  are  interior  to  those  that  fall  into  foreign  nets. 

37.  The    Sardine, — Chipea  sordino, — is   a  small   species   of 
Herring,  celebrated  for  the  great  delicacy  of  its  flesh.    It  inhabits 
the  Atlantic,  the  Baltic,  and  the  Mediterranean.     During  winter 
it  keeps  in  the  depths  of  the  sea;  but  about  the  month  of  June  it 
draws  near  the  shore  in  immense  shoals.     As  many  as  forty,  and 
even  fifty  thousand  have  been  caught  at  a  single  cast  of  the  net. 
Sardines  are  caught  in  the  same  way  as  Herrings,  but  the  meshes 
of  the  net  are  smaller,  and  the  fishermen,  to  attract  the  fish  from 
time  to  time,  throw  into  the  sea,  a  peculiar  bait,  which  is  prepared 
from  cod-fish  eggs.     From  the  mouth  of  the   Loire   to   the  ex- 
tremity of  Britany,  this  fish  abounds  every  summer,  and  gives 

35.  Is  the  Herring  fishery  important  ? 

36.  How  are  Herrings  caught  ?     What  are  the  qualities    of  American 
Herring  ? 

37.  What  are  Sardines  ?     How  are  they  caught? 


108  SHAD.— ALEWIFE.— ANCHOVY. 


rise  to  productive  fisheries:  along  the  coast  there  are  a  great 
number  of  establishments  for  the  preparation  and  preservation  of 
Sardines. 

33.  There  are  many  other  species  of  Herring,  among  which 
is  the  Pilchard,  which  does  not  differ  much  from  the  Sardine,  ex- 
cept that  it  is  larger  ;  the  Spraf,  which  is  smaller  than  the  Herring, 
is  also  salted  or  pickled,  and  the  White-bait,  a  very  small  fish  of 
the  most  beautiful  silver  colour,  with  a  black  spot  on  the  end  of 
the  muzzle. 

39,  SHADS, — JHosa>— are  distinguished  from  Herrings  properly 
so  called,  by  a  notch  in  the  middle  of  the  upper  jaw.     The  Corn- 
mow  S/iacl,  —  *fllosa  vidgaris, — which  attains  three  feet  in  length, 
and  has  no  visible  teeth,  inhabits  the  sea,  and  in  the  spring  ascends 
rivers  in  numerous  shoals.     At  this  period  their  flesh  is  excellent; 
but  when  the  fish  is  caught  at  sea,  it  is  dry,  and  possesses  an 
unpleasant  taste. 

40.  The  Jllewifc, — Clupea  vernalis, — holds  a  place  between  the 
shad  and  the  herring,  possessing  the  general  characteristics  of  both. 
Its  habits  bear  a  striking  resemblance  to  those  two  fishes;  it  ascends 
rivers  to  deposit  its  spawn,  and  afterwards  retires  to  the  ocean. 
It  is  found  chiefly  in  the  rivers  of  New  England. 

4t.  The  ANCHOVIES, — Eiigruidis, — also  belong  to  this  family; 
but  they  differ  from  the  herrings  in  the  mouth,  which  is  cleft  far 
behind  the  eyes,  in  their  gills  which  are  more  open,  and  in  some 
other  characteristics.  The  Common  .Anchovy, — Engranlis  encra- 
sickolus, — is  three  or  four  inches  long ;  the  back  is  brown,  and 
the  flanks  and  belly  silvery ;  it  is  found  in  the  Mediterranean,  as 
well  as  on  the  western  coasts  of  France  and  Spain,  in  almost  all 
parts  of  the  North  Atlantic  Ocean,  and  in  the  Baltic  Sea.  At  a 
certain  period  of  the  year,  which  varies  in  different  localities,  it 
leaves  the  high  sea  and  approaches  the  coast  to  spawn,  when  it 
becomes  the  object  of  an  important  fishery.  To  catch  it,  the 
French  fishermen  provide  themselves  with  nets,  which  are  about 
two  hundred  feet  in  length,  and  twenty-five  or  thirty  in  breadth, 
and  assemble  four  boats,  one  of  which  carries  the  net,  and  the 
others  furnaces,  in  which  they  make  a  bright  fire ;  this  fishery  is 
carried  on  in  dark  nights  from  April  to  July;  they  station  them- 
selves about  five  miles  from  the  coast ;  and  when  the  anchovies, 
attracted  by  the  light,  are  assembled  in  large  numbers  around  a 

38  What  other  fishes  belong  to  the  genus  of  Herrings? 

39  What  is  the  characteristic  difference  between  the  Shad  and  Herrings  ? 

40.  What  is  the  Ale  wife? 

41.  What  are  Anchovies?     What  are  the    characters  of  the    common 
Anchovy  ?     How  are  Anchovies  caught? 


FAMILY  OF  GADOIDES. 109 

boat  thus  illuminated,  the  net  is  cast  into  the  water,  and  laid  out 
so  as  to  surround  the  assembled  fishes ;  this  done,  the  fire  is  sud- 
denly extinguished,  and  the  anchovies  alarmed,  in  seeking  to 
escape,  are  taken  in  the  net.  They  are  preserved  with  salt,  after 
removing  the  head  and  intestines. 

The  family  of  Clupeae  embraces  a  great  number  of  other  genera, 
many  of  which  possess  remarkable  peculiarities,  but  our  limits 
will  not  permit  us  to  describe  them. 


LESSON    VIII. 

ORDER  OF  SUBBRACHIAN  MALACOPTERYGIANS. — Family  of 

Gadoides. —  Cods. —  Common  Cod. — Cod  Fishery. — Whiting. — 

Hake. —  Ling. 
FAMILY  OP  PLEURONECTES. — Organization. —  Plaice. —  Turbot. — 

Sole. — Family  of  Discoboli. 
FAMILY  OF  ECHENEIS. — Remora. 
ORDER  OP  APODOUS  MALACOPTERYGIANS. — Eels. — Common  Eel.— 

S'a  Eel. — Gymnotus  electricus. 

ORDER  OP  LOPHOBRANCHIANS. —  Organization. — Hippocampus. 
ORDER  OP  PLECTOGNATHI.  —  Organization. — Diodon. — Trunk-fish. 

ORDER    OF    MALACOPTERYGII    SUBBRACHIATI. 

1.  This  Order  is  distinguished  from  other   Malacopterygians 
by  the  situation  of  the  ventral  fins,  which  are  placed  beneath  the 
pectorals,  the  pelvis  being  suspended  immediately  from  the  bones 
of  the  shoulder. 

2.  The  Subbrachian  Malacopterygians  constitute  four  families, 
namely  :   Gadoides,  Pleuronectes,  Discoboli,  and  Echeneis. 

3.  The   FAMILY  OF  GADOIDES  is   composed     of    Subbrachian 
Malacopterygians  in  which  the  body  is  a  little  compressed,  and 
symmetrical,  in  which  the  ventral  fins  are  sharpened  to  a  point, 
and  attached  under  the  throat;  they  are  covered  wilh  soft,  small 
scales ;  most  of  them  live  in  cold  or  temperate  seas,  and  they 
afford  to  man  an  abundance  of  a  good  and  wholesome  food.    In 
this  family  are  placed  the  genera  of  Cod,  Whiting,  Ling,  &c. 

1.  What  are  the  characters  of  the  Subbrachian  Malacopterygiana  ? 

2.  Into  what  families  is  this  order  divided .? 

S.  What  are  the  general  characters  of  the  flunily  of  Gadoides  ? 
9 


110  COD.— WHITING. 


4.  The  CODS, — Gadus, — are  distinguished  by  the  existence  of 
three  dorsal,  and  two  anal  fins,  and  a  cirrus  at  the   end    of  the 
muzzle  or  snout.     The  most  important  species  of  this  genus  is 
the    Cod  properly   so   called, — Gadtit  morrhua, — a  fish  two  or 
three  feet  long,  with  a  gray  back  spotted  yellowish,  and  a  white 
belly.     Cods  are  found  in  greatest  abundance  in  the  ocean   be- 
tween the  fortieth  and  sixtieth  degrees  of  north  latitude.     On  the 
coasts  of  Norway,  in  the  neighbourhood    of  Iceland,   and   espe- 
cially in  the  waters  of  Newfoundland,  they  are  found  in  incalcu- 
lable numbers.     During  winter,  they  retire  to  the  depths  of  the 
sea ;  but  in  the  warm  season,  the  necessity  of  casting  their  spawn 
and  of  providing  for  their  subsistence,  causes  them  to  approach 
the  shore,  and  fathomable  waters.     In   some  localities,  the  cod- 
fishery  is  conducted  with  seines  four  or  five  hundred  feet  in  length, 
but  generally  they  are  caught  with  a  hook  and  line,  baited  with 
herring,  the  gills  of  cod-fish,  &c.     A  skilful  fisherman  may  catch 
in  this  way,  four  hundred  cod-fishes  in  a  day.    The  fish  is  prepared 
in  different  ways  for  preservation ;  when  simply  salted,  it  is  known 
in  commerce  as  green  cod ;  when  dried  without  being  salted,  it 
is  stockfish ;  and  when  salted  and  dried  in  the  sun,  it  is   called 
dry  cod.     The  tongues,  salted  or  pickled  with  the   swimming- 
bladders,  are  much  esteemed,  and   known    under  the   title  of 
tongues  and  sounds.     "  The  sound  or  swimming-bladder  oi  the 
cod-fish,  if  rightly  prepared,  supplies  an  isinglass  equal   to  the 
best  Russian,  and  applicable  to  all  the  uses  for  which  the  imported 
is  employed."     The  liver  yields  a  large  quantity  of  pure,  limpid 
oil,  cod-liver-oil,  which,  in  many  respects,  and  for  most  purposes, 
is  superior  to  the  commonly  used  fish-oil. 

Catching  and  preparing  cod-fish  are  very  important  branches 
of  maritime  industry.  About  twelve  thousand  French,  and  a 
very  much  larger  number  of  English  and  American  fishermen  are 
yearly  engaged  in  this  business. 

5.  The  WHITINGS, — Merlangust—have  the   same  number   of 
fins  as  the  cod,  but  no  cirri.     The  Common    Whiting, — Gadus 

Fig.  53.  merlanyvs,—  (Fig.  53.)   which  is 

about  a  foot  long,  silvery  beneath, 
reddish  gray  or  olive  above,  may 
be  recognised  by  the  upper  jaw 
being  longer  than  the  lower:  it 
inhabits  European  seas,  and  is 


COMMON    WHITING. 


4.  How  is  the  genus  of  Cods  recognised  ?     What  is  the  Cod  properly  so 
called  ?     Where  are  Cods  found  ?     How  are  they  caught  ?     What  is  Stock- 
i  sh  ?     What  are  longues  and  sounds  ? 

5.  What  are  the  characters  of  the  common  Whiting' 


HAKE.— LING.—PLAICE. 111 

much  esteemed  for  the  lightness  of  its  delicate  flesh.  On  the 
coast  of  Britany  it  is  salted  and  dried  like  the  cod. 

6.  The  HAKES, — Merluccius, — have  no  cirri,  and  differ  from  the 
cods  in  the  number  of  their  fins ;  they  have  but  two  dorsal  fins, 
and  one  posterior  to  the   anus.     The  Common  Hake, — (if  adits 
mcrluccius, — is  from  one  to  two  feet  in  length,  and  sometimes 
much  longer ;  the  back  is  brown  gray ;  the  anterior  dorsal  fin 
pointed ;  lower  ja\v  longest.     The  Hake  is  taken  in  great  numbers, 
both  in  the  Mediterranean  and   Atlantic ;  it  is  usually  found  in 
pursuit  of  mackerel  shoals  ;  when  salted  and  dried,  it  receives,  in 
the  north,  the  name  of  stock-fish,  which  is  also  applied  to  the  cod. 

7.  The  Lings, — Lota,— have  a  greater  or  less  number  of  cirri, 
and  the  same  fins  as  the  Hakes.     They  are  almost  as  numerous 
as  the  cod  in  the  northern  seas.     The  Common  Ling  differs  from 
other  Gadoides  in  the  almost  cylindrical  form  of  its  body,  in  its 
depressed  head  and  habits  :  it  is  the  only  fish  of  this  family  that 
ascends  rivers  into  fresh  water.     Its  flesh  is  mucn  esteemed. 

8.  The  FAMILY  OP  PLEURONECTES,  comprises  what  are  vulgarly 
called  the  Flat-Fishes;  these  animals  have  the  body  very   much 
compressed  laterally,  and  very  much  elevated  vertically ;  but  what 
especially  distinguishes  them  is  a  want  of  symmetry  in  the  head, 
a  character  which  is  not  observed  in 

any  other  vertebrate  animal,  (Fig. 
54.)  Both  eyes  are  placed  on  the 
same  side,  which  is  always  upper- 
most when  the  animal  swims,  and  is 
always  deeply  coloured,  while  the 
opposite  side  is  always  whitish.  The 
two  sides  of  the  mouth  are  unequal, 
and  it  is  rare  to  find  both  pectoral  fins  FLAT-FISH. 

perfectly  alike ;  the  dorsal  fin  extends  along  the  whole  back ;  the 
anal  fin  occupies  the  lower  part  of  the  body,  and  the  ventrals  seem 
to  be  continuous  with  it  in  front,  as  they  are  almost  united  one 
to  the  other.  They  want  the  swimming-bladder,  swim  on  the 
side,  and  seldom  quit  the  bottom. 

9.  The  principal  genera  of  this   family,  are  the   Plaice,   the 
Turbot,  and  the  Sole. 

10.  The   PLAICE, — Platessa, — have   in   each  jaw,   a  row  of 
cutting,  and  obtuse  teeth  ;  most  generally,  the  pharyngeal  bones 

6.  How  are  Hakes  characterised?     What  are  the  characters  of  the  com- 
mon  Hake  ? 

7.  How  are  Lings  characterised? 

8.  What  are  the  peculiarities  of  the  family  of  Pleuronectes  ? 

9.  What  are  the  principal  genera  of  this  family  ? 
10.  What  are  the  characters  of  Plaice  ? 


112  PLAICE.—  FLOUNDER.—  HOLIBUT.-TURBOT.  _ 

are  furnished  with  teeth  like  pebbles  ;  the  dorsal  fin  extends  as 
far  forward  as  a  point  above  the  upper  eye,  leaving  a  naked 
interval  between  it  and  the  caudal  fin  ;  their  form  is  rhomboidal, 
and  most  frequently  their  eyes  are  on  the  right  side. 

11.  The  Common  Plaice,  —  Platessa  platessa,  —  is  easily  recog- 
nised by  six  or  seven  tubercles,  forming  a  straight    line  on  the 
right  side  of  the  head,  between  the  eyes,  and  by  the  pale  yellow 
spots  which  relieve  the  brown  on  the  same  side  of  the  body  ;  it  is 
three  times  as  long  as  it  is  high,  and  its  scales  are  thin  and  soft. 
Its  flesh  is  very  tender  and  much  esteemed  :  its  weight  sometimes 
reaches  sixteen  pounds.     It  is  common  on  the  coasts  of  France, 
and  abounds  on  those  of  Holland. 

12.  The  Flounder,  —  Platessa  flesiis,  —  resembles  the  common 
plaice,  but  only  has  small  granules  between  the  eyes,  and  has  a 
small  rough  button  at  the  base  of  each  ray  of  the  dorsal  and  anal 
fins.    It  inhabits  our  coast,  and  ascends  rivers.     In  many  indi- 
viduals the  eyes  are  on  the  left,  instead  of  the  right  side  of  the  head. 

13.  The  Limande,  or  Dah,  —  Platessa  Limanda,  —  has   a   pro- 
jecting line  between  the'eyes,  and  a  body  which  is  comparatively 
higher  than  it  is  long.     Its  scales  are  rougher  than  in  any  of  the 
preceding  species,  from  which  circumstance  it  has   derived  its 
name,  (from  Lima,  a  file)  ;  the  teeth  are  straighter;  and  the  side 
upon  which  the  eyes  are  placed  is  light  brown  with   some   faded 
brown  and  whitish  spots. 

14.  The  Holibut,  —  Hippoglossus  vulgaris,  or  Platessa  Hippo- 
glo*sn8,  —  has  the  form  and  fins  of  a  Platessa,  but  the  jaws  and 
pharynx  are  armed  with  teeth,  which  are  most  commonly  strong 
and  pointed.     The  eyes  are  on  the  right  side.     It  is  a  voracious 
fish,  and  is  found  in  the  northern  seas,  and  our  own  coast.     It  is 
taken  with  a  line,  and  sometimes  weighs  five  hundred  pounds. 


miis'  —  has  a  rhomboidal  body,  almost 
as  high  as  it  is  long,  and  studded  on 
the  brown  side  with  small  tubercles; 
the  eyes  are  close  together,  and  there 
is  a  projecting  crest  between  them. 
It  is  probably  the  most  valuable  of 
the  flat-fishes,  and  excepting  the 
TURBOT.  holibut,  grows  larger  than  any  of 

the  others.     It  is  highly  prized  in  England.     It  is  also  met  with 

on  our  own  coast. 

11.  How  is  the  common  Plaice  recognised  ? 

12.  How  is  the  Flounder  characterised  ? 

13.  What  are  the  characters  of  the  Limande? 

14.  What  are  the  characters  of  the  Holibut? 

15.  What  are  the  characters  of  the  Turbot? 


SOLE.— SUCKL\(;-FISH. 113 

16.  SOLES,— Solea, — have  an  oblong  body,  a  round  projecting 
snout,  the  dorsal  extending  from  the  mouth  to  the  anal  fin,  and 
the  mouth  distorted  and  armed  with  teeth  on  one  side  only.    The 
Common  Sole, — Platessa  solea,  or  Solea  vulgaris, — is  olive  brown 
on  the  right  side  and  grayish  on  the  left.     It  is  found  on  our  own 
coast,  chiefly  at  the  mouths  of  rivers,  and  is  an  excellent  fish. 

17.  The  FAMILY  OF  DISCOBOLI  is  composed  of  a  small  number 
of  Subbranchian  Malacopterygians,  which  have  the  ventral  fins 
united  in  form  of  a  disk.     It  includes  two  genera,  in  which  are 
placed  the  Lump-Fish,  and  Lump  Sucker. 

18.  The  FAMILY  OF  ECHENEIS,  formed  of  a  single  genus,  is  re- 
markable among  all  fishes  for  a  flattened  disk,  which  covers  the 

p.     -g         head,   ( Fig.  56.  )  it   is   composed  of  a  certain 
number    of   moveable,    transverse   cartilaginous 
plates,    standing  obliquely    backwards,    by   the 
assistance  of  which,  the  animal  can  attach  itself 
to  different  bodies  to  which  it  applies  this  singular 
instrument      By  this  means,  it  often  attaches  itself 
to  rocks,  to  vessels,  and  to  other  fishes,   particu- 
DISK  OF  A    iarly  to  the  shark.     A  species,  which  lives  in  the 
REMORA.         Mediterranean  and  the  Atlantic,  has  been  long 
celebrated  under  the  name  of  Remora,  or  Sucking-Fish,  (Fig.  57.) 
and   its  history  is  loaded  jC.  57. 

with  fable.  It  was  pre- 
tended that  this  fish  lived 
by  a  species  of  suction, 
which  it  exerted  by  means 

of  the   disk,    (Fig.    56.)  THE  REMORA. 

above  mentioned,  and  the  power  of  arresting  the  fastest  sailing 
vessel  in  her  course,  was  attributed  to  it.  A  species,  similar  to 
the  preceding,  is  very  common  in  the  waters  of  the  Isle  of  France, 
and  it  appears  that,  on  the  coast  of  Caffraria,  it  is  employed  in 
fishing,  setting  it  off  in  pursuit  of  fishes,  and  drawing  it  in  by  a 
line  attached  to  the  tail,  as  soon  as  it  has  fixed  itself  to  its  prey. 

ORDER   OF    MALACOPTERYGII   APODA. 

19.  All  the  fishes  of  this  order  have  an  elongated  form,  a  thick, 
soft,  and  but  slightly  scaly  skin  ;  but  their  chief  characteristic  is 
their  want  of  ventral  fins.     They  form  a  single  natural  family, 
ANGUILLIFORMES,  which  is  composed  of  the  tribe  of  eels,  gymnotus, 
&c.  &c 

1 6.  What  are  the  characters  of  Soles  ? 

17.  How  is  the  family  of  Discoboli  characterised? 

18.  What  are  the  characters  of  the  Remora  ? 

19.  How  are  Apodous  Malacopterygians  characterised  ? 

y  * 


114 EELS. 

20.  -Fishes  of  the  tribe  of  Anguilliformes,  have  a  long,  slender 
body,  and  the  scales,  as  it  were,  incrusted  in  a  thick,  fat   skin ; 
the  operculum  is  small,  surrounded  by  the  branchiostegous  rays, 
in  form  of  a  circle,  which  are  enveloped  in  the  skin,   and  open 
very  far  back  by  a  hole  or  sort  of  tube,  an  arrangement  which 
affords  better  protection  to  the  gills,  and  enables  these  fishes  to 
remain  sometime  out  of  water  without  perishing. 

21.  EELS, — Mnrcena, — are  characterised    by   having  pectoral 
fins,  and  the  openings  of  the  gills  beneath  them.     Those  which 
have  the  dorsal  and  caudal  fins  prolonged  around  the  end  of  the 
tail,  so  as  to  form  a  pointed  caudal  fin,  are  designated  under  the 
name  of  EELS  PROPERLY  so  CALLED,  and  are  again  subdivided  into 
COMMON  EELS,  and  CONGER  EELS,  according  as   the  dorsal    fin 
commences  far  from,  or  near  to  the  pectoral  fins. 

22.  Common  Eds, — Jlnguilla, — are  too  well  known  to  require 
description.     Their  colour  varies  acording  to  age,  and,   as   it 
appears,  according  to  the  quality  of  the  water  in  which  they  dwell. 
Those  that  inhabit  limpid  waters  have  a  greenish  back,  striped 
brown,  and  a  white  or  silvery  belly,  while  those  that  are  caught 
in  the  mud  are  ordinarily  blackish  brown  above,  and  yellowish 
beneath.     Eels  are  very  voracious   and  extremely   agile;  they 
swim  equally  well  backward  and  forward,  and    their  skin  is  so 
slippery  that  it  is  difficult  to  hold  them.     During  a  great  part  of 
their  life  they  inhabit  fresh  water,  and  frequent  ponds  and   seas, 
as  well  as  rivers      By  day,  they  almost  always  keep  buried   in 
the  mud  or  lie  concealed  in  holes,  they  excavate  near  the  shore. 
These  holes  are  sometimes  very  extensive,   and   lodge  a   great 
number  of  eels;  but,  in  general,  their  diameter  is  small,  and  they 
open  externally   at   both   ends,  which  enables    the    animal   to 
escape  more  readily  when  threatened   by  danger.     When  the 
season   is  very  warm,  and  the  stagnant  waters    of  the    pools 
begin  to  putrify,  the  eels  leave  the  bottom   and  conceal  them- 
selves in  the  herbage  of  the  shore,  or  even  cross   the   land  in 
search  of  a  more  favourable  locality :  they  can,  in  fact,  crawl  on 
the  ground  like  serpents,  and  remain  a  considerable  time  in  the 
air   without   perishing.     Ordinarily    they   make  these   singular 
journeys  during  the  night;  and  when  it  is  extremely  dry,  they 
bury  themselves  in  the  mud,  and  continue  there  until  the   water 
returns.     The  length  of  time  they   can    remain   there   without 
perishing  is  surprising.     These  fishes  have  been  known  to  remain 

20.  What  are  the  characters  of  the  Anguilliformes? 

21.  How  are  Eels  characterised  ? 

22.  What  are  the  characters  of  common  Eels  ?     What  are  their  habits  ' 
Are  they  natives  of  salt  or  fresh  water  ? 


ELECTRIC  EEL.  H5 


for  months  and  even  years  in  the  mud  of  dried  up  pools,  or  in 
holes  destitute  of  water,  and  nevertheless,  regain  their  activity,  the 
moment  they  were  placed  in  their  native  element.  This  is  not 
the  only  circumstance  under  which  these  fishes  display  their  re- 
markable tenacity  of  life.  They  may  be  deprived  of  their  skin, 
and  their  viscera,  and  be  cut  in  pieces,  without  depriving  the 
trunk  of  their  body  of  the  power  of  yet  moving  for  some  time. 
In  early  life,  they  inhabit  the  sea,  and  in  the  spring  the  young 
eels  ascend  rivers  to  dwell  in  fresh  water,  which,  when  full 
grown,  they  abandon  to  deposit  their  eggs  in  the  sea. 

23.  The  name  of  Conger  Eels  is  applied  to  eels  that  differ  very 
little  from  common  eels,  except  that  they  are  of  large  size,  and 
always  dwell  in  the  sea  or  salt  water. 

24.  MUR^ENJE  PROPERLY  so  CALLED,  —  Mnrcena,  —  are  entirely 
without  pectoral  fins,  and  their  branchiae  open  on  each  side  by  a 
small  hole.     The  most  celebrated  species  is  the  Murcena  helena, 
which  attains  more  than  three  feet  in  length,  and   is  marbled 
throughout  with  brown  and  yellowish ;  it  is  widely  spread  over 
the   Mediterranean,    and   was    very    highly   esteemed    by    the 
ancients.     The  Romans  reared  them  in  great  numbers,  in   their 
magnificent  fish-ponds,  decorated  them  with  jewels,  and   taught 
them  to  come  at  the  sound  of  their  master's  voice.     Hirrius  was 
the  first  to  consecrate  fish-ponds  exclusively  to    muraense,  and 
he  caused  six  thousand  of  these  fishes  to  be  served  up   at   an 
entertainment,  given  to  Ca3sar  when  he  was  named  dictator. 

25.  The  GYMNOTI,  which  have  the  gills  partially  closed  by  a 
membrane,  but  opening  in  front  of  the  pectoral  fins,  also  belong 
to  this  order.     The  Gymnoti  properly 

so  called, — Gymnotiis,—have,  like  the 
other  fishes  of  this  division,  a  ventral 
fin,  which  extends  under  the  greater 
part  of  the  body,  but  they  want  the 
fins  at  the  end  of  the  tail,  and  their 
skin  is  without  perceptible  scales. 
They  inhabit  the  rivers  of  South 
America,  and  one  of  them,  the  Elec- 
tric Eel, — Gymnotus  electricm — (Fig. 
58.)  is  celebrated  on  account  of  the 

23.  What  are  Conger  Eels  ? 

24.  What  are  the  characters  of  M  uraenee  properly  so  called  ?     What  are 
the  characters  of  the  Muraenae  helena  ? 

25.  What  are  the  characters  of  the  Gymnoti  properly  so  called  ?     What 
are  the  characters  of  the  electric  Eel  ?     Where  is  it  found  ?     What  are  its 
habits  ? 


116  ELECTRIC  EEL. 


violent  electric  shocks  it  has  the  power  of  communicating  at  will, 
and  in  the  direction  it  pleases.  This  fish  acquires  five  or  six  feet  in 
length,  (Fig.  58.) ;  its  body  is  elongated,  and  of  the  same  size 
throughout,  and  its  skin  is  imbued  with  a  gluey  matter  :  it  is  very 
common  in  the  small  rivulets  and  lakes,  and  met  with  here  and 
there  on  the  immense  planes  situate  between  the  Cordillera,  the 
Oronoco,  and  Banda-Oriental,  and  it  is  also  found  in  the  Apure, 
Oronoco,  Meta,  &c  The  electric  shocks  which  it  gives,  are 
sufficiently  powerful  to  knock  down  men  and  horses,  and  the 
Gymnotus  resorts  to  this  means  of  defending  itself  against  its 
enemies,  and  to  kill  at  a  distance,  fishes  upon  which  it  feeds ;  for 
water,  as  well  as  metals,  transmits  the  benumbing  shock  of  this 
singular  animal,  in  the  same  manner  that  the  lightning  rod  con- 
ducts the  electricity  of  the  clouds  from  the  atmosphere  to  the 
earth.  Its  first  discharges  of  electricity  are  generally  feeble;  but 
when  it  is  irritated  and  agitated,  they  become  more  and  more 
powerful,  and  are  then  terrible.  When  it  has  thus  given  repeated 
shocks,  it  becomes  exhausted,  and  requires  a  greater  or  less 
period  of  rest  before  it  regains  its  power.  It  is  said,  that  it 
employs  this  time  in  charging  its  electric  organs,  and  that  the 
Americans  avail  themselves  of  this  circumstance  to  capture  it 
without  danger.  To  catch  the  gymnoti,  they  drive  into  the  pools 
inhabited  by  these  fishes,  wild  horses,  which,  receiving  the  first 
shocks,  are  soon  benumbed,  and  thrown  down  or  even  killed ; 
then  they  obtain  the  exhausted  gymnoti  with  nets,  or  a  harpoon. 

26.  The  electric  apparatus  of  the  gymnotus  extends  all  along 
the  back  and  tail,  and  consists  of  four  longitudinal  fasciculi,  com- 
posed of  a  great   number   of  membranous    plates,    which   are 
parallel  and  very  close  together,  and  arranged  almost  horizontally 
and  united  by  an  infinity  of  other  smaller  lamellaB  placed   verti- 
cally crosswise :  the  little  prismatic  and  transverse  cells,  formed 
by  the  junction  of  these  lamenae,  are  filled  by  a  gelatinous  matter : 
the  whole  apparatus  is  supplied  with  very  large  nerves. 

ORDER   OF    LOPHOBRANCHII. 

27.  This  order  is  distinguished  by  the  branchiaa,   which,  in 
place  of  being  pectinate,  that  is,  having  the  form  of  comb-teeth, 
as  is  ordinarily  the  case,   are  divided  into  small  round  tufts, 
arranged  in  pairs  along  the  branchial  arches.     They  are  enclosed 
under  a  large  operculum,  which  is  attached  on   all  sides   by   a 
membrane,  leaving  only  a  small  hole  for  the  escape  of  water, 

26.  What  is  the  situation  of  the  electric  apparatus    of  the   Gymnotus? 
What  are  fhe  characters  of  this  apparatus  ? 

a?.  What  are  the  characters  of  the  order  of  Lophobranchii  ? 


HI  PPOC  AMPUS.— DIODO  N. 117 

an  d  in  its  thickness  we  find  only  vestiges  of  branchiostegous 
rays.  These  fishes  are  also  recognised  by  the  mail-like  plates 
which  cover  the  body,  and  render  it  almost  always  angular. 
They  are  generally  small. 

28.  To  this  order   belongs  the 
Hippocampus,  (Fig.  59.)  the  body 
of  which  is  laterally  compressed, 
and  more  elevated  than   the  tail ; 

on  curling  up,    after   death,    the  HIPVOCAMPU8. 

head  and  trunk  bear  some  resem- 
blance to  the  neck  of  a  horse  in  miniature,  which  has   obtained 
for  this  little  fish  the  common  name  of  Sea-horse. 

ORDER    OF    PLECTOGNATHI, 

29.  The  fishes  composing  this  group  form  the  connecting  link 
between  the  ordinary  and  cartilaginous  fishes,  as   much   by  the 
conformation  of  their  jaws,  as  by  the  tardy  consolidation  of  their 
skeleton.     Their  chief  distinctive  character  is,  that  the  maxillary, 
is  solidly  fi^ed  upon  the  side  of  the  intermaxillary  bone,  which 
alone  forms  the  jaw,  and  that  the  palatine  arch  articulates   with 
the  cranium,  in  a  manner  which  renders  it  immoveable.     More- 
over, their  opercula  and  branchiostegous  rays  are  concealed  be- 
neath a  thick  skin,  which  leaves  externally  only  a  small  branchial 
slit ;  they  have  no  true  ventral  fins  ;  and  they  have  only  vestiges 
of  ribs.     This  order  comprises  two  families,  recognisable  by  t'.ie 
opening  of  their  mouth,   namely :    the    Gymnodontes,  and  the 
Sclerodermi. 

30.  In  the  FAMILY  OP  GYMNODONTES,   there   are   no   apparent 
teeth  ;  but  the  jaws  are  furnished  with  a  species  of  ivory    beak, 
internally  divided   into   plates,    which   represent   the  teeth      It 
includes  the  Dindon,  the  Tetradon,  the  Mole,&c. 

31.  The   DIODON   has   received  this  name,  because  the  jaws, 
being   undivided,   have  each    but   a   single  piece,  while  in  the 
TETRADON,  tHfcy  are  divided  in  the  middle  by  a  suture,  so  as  to 
present  the  appearance  of  four  teeth  :  two  above,  and  two  below. 
These  two  genera  of  fishes  have  the   faculty   of  swelling  them- 
selves up  like  a  balloon,  by  swallowing  air,  -and  thus  distending 
a  first,  very  extensible  stomach,  which  occupies  the  whole  length 
of  the  abdomen.     This   peculiarity  has  obtained   for   them   the 

28    What  is  the  Hippocampus  ? 

29.  What  are  the  characters  of  the  order  of  Plectognathi  ? 

30.  How  are  Gymnodontes  characterised  ? 

31.  How  does  the  Diodon   differ   from   the    Tetradon?     What  are   the 
peculiarities  of  these  two  genera  ? 


118 SUN-FISH.— TRUNK-FISH. 

common  names  of  Swell-Fish,  Porcupine- Fish,  Balloon-Fish, 
Blower,  &c.,  and  furnishes  them  with  a  means  of  defence ;  for, 
when  the  skin  is  distended,  the  spines  with  which  it  is  armed, 
become  every  where  erect,  and  bristle  the  whole  surface  of  the 
body  ;  and  when  they  are  thus  swelled,  they  turn  over,  the  belly 
corning  uppermost,  and  they  float  on  the  surface  of  the  sea  with- 
out the  power  of  directing  their  course.  They  are  found  in  the 
tropical  seas,  and  on  the  North  American  coast. 

32.  The  SUN-FISHES,  or  MOLES, — Cephalitis, — sometimes  called 
Moon- Wishes,  resemble  the  Diodon,  in  the  arrangement  of  their 
jaws ;  but  their  body  which  is   compressed,   and   of  a  strange 
shape,  has  no  spines,  nor  is  it  susceptible  of  inflation ;  and  their 
tail  is  so  short  ^nd  so  high  vertically,  they   appear  like   fishes 
having  the  posterior  part  cut  off.     One  species,  which  sometimes 
attains   more   than   four  feet  in   length,    weighing  over  three 
hundred  pounds,  inhabits  the  coast  of  France. 

33.  The  FAMILY  OF  SCLERODERMI,   is  easily  distinguished  by 
the  conical  or  pyramidal  snout,  prolonged   from  the   eyes,  and 
terminated  by  a  small  mouth,  armed  with   a   small*  number    of 
distinct  teeth.     The  skin  is  generally  rough,  or  covered  with 
hard  scales. 

34.  Some  of  them,  named  BALISTES,  have  a  compressed  body 
covered  by  a  scaly  or  granular  skin,  but  not  osseous :  they  have 
eight  teeth   generally  trenchant,  arranged  in  a  single  row  in  each 
jaw,  and  two  dorsal  fins.     They  are  found  in  great  numbers   in 
the  torrid  zone. 

35.  Others,  called  TRUNK-FISHES, — Ostracion, — have,  in  place 
of  scales,  (Fig.  60.)  regular,  bony  compartments  or  plates,  united 

Fig.  60.  into  a  kind  of  inflexible  coat  of  mail, 

which  covers  the  head  and  body,  so 
that  they  can  only  move  the  tail,  the 
fins,  the  mouth,  and  a  kind  of  small 
lip,  around  the  edge  of  their  gills, 
which  pass  through  ^loles  in  this 
TRUNK  FISH.  cuirasse ;  each  jaw  is  armed  with 

ten  or  twelve  conical  teeth.     They  are  found  on  the  coast   of 
the  United  States. 


32.  How  are  Sun-fishes  characterised  ? 

33.  How  is  the  family  of  Sclerodermi  distinguished  ? 

34.  How  are  the  Balistes  characterised? 

35.  What  are  the  characters  of  Trunk  fishes? 


STRUCTURE  OF  CARTILAGINOUS  FISHES.  119 


LESSON   IX, 

DIVISION   OF   CARTILAGINOUS    FISHES,   OR    CHONDROPTERYGIANS. — 

Organization. 

ORDER  OP  STURIONES. — Sturgeons. — Caviar. —  Fish-glue. 
ORDER  OF  SELACHII. — Sharks. — Saw-Jish* — Rays. —  Torpedo. 
ORDER  OF  CYCLOSTOMI. — Lampreys. 

DIVISION  OF  CHONDROPTERYGII,  OR  CARTILAGINOUS 
FISHES. 

The  Chondropterygians  differ  in  many  respects  from  all  the 
fishes  we  have  spoken  of,  and  are  less  uniform  in  their  structure. 
Some  of  them  have  organs  even  more  complicated  than  the  last, 
and  approximate  more  to  the  reptiles,  while  others  form  a  sort  of 
connecting  link,  between  the  vertebrata  and  inferior  classes  of 
animals. 

1.  Their  skeleton  is  essentially  cartilaginous:  it  is  not  formed 
of  bony  fibres,  and  the  calcareous  matter  that  hardens  on  its 
surface,  is  only  deposited  in  small  grains.  Sometimes  the  skeleton 
is  only  membranous,  and  it  is  always  more  simple  in  its  confor- 
mation than  that  of  the  osseous  fishes.  It  is  also  remarked,  there 
is  a  resemblance  between  it  and  the  cartilaginous  skeleton  of  the 
tadpole.  The  cranium  is  not  divided  by  sutures,  and  is  composed 
of  a  single  piece,  shaped  in  other  respects  very  much  like  the 
skull  of  an  ordinary  fish.  The  uppei  jaw  is  formed  of  pieces 
analogous  to  the  palate  bones  and  vomer ;  the  maxillary  and 
intermaxillary  bones  do  not  exist,  or  are  found  only  in  a  rudi- 
mentary state,  concealed  beneath  the  skin.  The  lower  jaw  is 
constituted  of  one  piece  on  each  side,  and  the  opercular  apparatus 
is,  in  general,  entirely  wanting.  The  vertebral  column  is  some- 
times formed,  in  a  great  part,  of  a  single  tube,  pierced  on  each 
side  for  the  passage  of  nerves,  but  not  divided  into  distinct 
vertebras  ;  frequently  too,  the  bodies  of  the  vertebrae  are  pierced 
through  and  through,  so  that  the  gelatinous  substance,  which  tills 
the  spaces  betwixt  these  bones,  forms  a  continuous  cord.  The 
disposition  of  the  bones  of  the  shoulder,  of  the  pelvis,  and  fins, 
varies.  The  hyoid  apparatus,  which  supports  the  branchiae,  is, 
in  general,  much  the  same  as  it  is  in  ordinary  fishes;  but, 
towards  the  termination  of  this  series  or  division,  the  branchial 
arches  are  wanting,  and  the  branchiae  are  only  attached,  on  the 

1.  What  are  the  characters  of  the  skeleton  of  cartilaginous  fishes?  Is 
there  any  thing  peculiar  in  the  arrangement  of  their  branchite  ? 


120  STURGEONS. 


internal  side,  to  the  parietes  of  a  membranous  canal.  Remark- 
able modifications  in  the  mode  of  organization  of  these  organs 
are  observed.  Sometimes  the  branchiae  are  free  on  the  external 
edge,  as  in  the  osseous  fishes ;  sometimes,  on  the  contrary,  they 
are  attached  by  both  edges,  and  this  difference  furnishes  a  basis 
for  the  division  of  cartilaginous  fishes  into  two  groups :  the 
Chondropterygians  with  free  branchiae,  which  constitute  a  single 
order,  and  the  Chondropterygians  with  Jlxed  branchiae^  which 
form  two  orders,  the  Selachii,  and  Cyclostomi. 

ORDER  OF  CHONDROPTERYGII    BRANCHIIS    LIBERIA 
OR    STURIONES. 

2.  The  Sturiones,  or  Chondropterygians  with  free  branchiae, 
of  which  the  Sturgeon  is  the  type,  resemble  ordinary  fishes  in  the 
disposition  of  their  gills,  as  well  as  in  their  free  branchiae ;  they 
have,  on  each  side,  a  single  branchial  opening,  furnished  with  an 
operculum,  but  which  wants  the  rays. 

3.  The  STURGEONS,  —  Jlcipenser, —  have  the  general  form  of 
osseous  fishes,  and,  in  the  structure  of  their  skeleton,   form  the 
connecting    link    between    them    and    the  Chondropterygians; 
for  many   bones  of  their   head  and  shoulders   are  completely 
hardened  and,  as  it  were    stony  on  the  surface.     Their   upper 
jaw  is  composed  of  the  palate  bones  solidly  attached  to  the  maxil- 
lary bones,  and  vestiges  of  intermaxillary  bones  are  found  in  the 
substance  of  the  lips.     The  body  is  more  or  less  covered  with 
plates  imbedded  in  the  skin  in  longitudinal  rows ;  their  mouth  is 
small  and  unprovided  with  teeth ;  the  dorsal  fin  is   situated  be- 
hind the  ventral,  and  above  the  anal  fin  ;  the  caudal  fin  surrounds 
the  extremity   of  the  tail,  and  has  a  projecting  lobe  beneath. 
These  fishes  are  generally  large,  and  endowed   with    very   con- 
siderable muscular  strength  :  they  easily  stem  the  most  rapid 
current,  and  can  strike  violent  blows  with  their   tail ;  but  their 
habits  are  ordinarily  peaceful,  and  they  are  formidable   only  to 
small,  or  badly  armed  fishes ;  they  feed  on  herrings,  mackerels, 
sometimes  salmons,  and  they  have  been  seen  to  root  in  the  mud 
with  their  nose,  in  pursuit  of  worms  and  mollusks.     In  the  spring 
they  ascend  certain  rivers  from  the  sea,  often  in  numerous  shoals, 
to  deposit  their  eggs.     Their  fecundity  is   very   great ;  we   are 
assured  that  1,500,000  eggs  have  been  found  in  one  female  that 
weighed  278  pounds,  and  in  another,  weighing  2800  pounds,  the 
eggs  by  themselves,  weighed   800  pounds.     The   young  ones 

2.  What  are  the  characters  of  the  Sturiones  ? 

3.  What  are  the  characters  of  Sturgeons  ?     What  is  Caviar  ?     What  is 
Ichthyocolla? 


STURGEONS.  121 


appear  to  seek  the  sea  very  early,  and  remain  until  full  grown. 
The  flesh  of  most  of  these  fishes  is  agreeable,  and  there  is  pre- 
pared from  their  eggs  a  food,  which  is  very  much  esteemed  in  the 
north  of  Europe,  known  under  the  name  of  caviar ;  and  it  is 
chiefly  from  their  swimming-bladder  thatfah-glue,  or  ichthyocolla 
is  prepared. 

4.  Many  species  of  sturgeons  are  known ;  they  are  found  in 
western  Europe  and  North  America ;  but  it  is  particularly  in  the 
great  rivers  of  the  eastern  part  of  Europe,  and  the  north  of  Asia, 
that  they  abound,  and  give  rise  to  important  fisheries.     The 
Common  Sturgeon, — Jlcipenser  aturio, — is  six  or  seven  feet  long, 
with  a  pointed  snout,  and  five  rows  of  strong,   spiny  plates :  it 
enters  the  large  rivers  of  France  about  the  month  of  April,  and 
ascends  in  numerous  shoals,  the  Danube,  the  Don,  and  many 
other  streams  that  flow  into  the  Caspian    Sea.     This  species  is 
found  in  the  waters  of  the  United   States.     The  Hausen,  or 
Great  Sturgeon,  —  JlcApemer  huso,  —  (  Fig.  61.)  which  attains 
from   twelve  to  fifteen  feet  in  length,  and   often    weighs   more 
than   twelve    hun- 

dred  pounds,  and 
sometimes  even  as 
much  as  three 
thousand  is  some- 
times seen  in  the  ''HI 
Po  :  but  generally,  THE  GREAT  STURGEON. 
it  only  frequents  the  Danube,  the  Don,  the  Volga,  and  other  rivers 
which  empty  into  the  same  seas.  It  enters  them  in  shoals,  from 
the  end  of  winter,  and,  immediately  after  spawning,  returns  to 
the  sea,  where  it  is  soon  followed  by  its  young.  Its  flesh  is  less 
esteemed  than  that  of  the  common  sturgeon  ;  but  it  is  chiefly 
from  its  eggs  and  its  swimming-bladder  that  caviar,  and  ichthyo- 
colla are  prepared.  It  is  distinguished  from  the  last  by  its  blunter 
tubercles  or  plates,  its  shorter  .snout,  and  smoother  skin.  The 
Sterlet,  or  Little  Sturgeon, — Jlcipeitser  pygmceits, — which  seldom 
exceeds  two  feet  in  length,  and  which  has  its  plates  arranged  in 
more  numerous  rows  than  the  preceding  species,  also  inhabits 
the  rivers  which  flow  into  the  Black  and  Caspian  Seas :  its  flesh 
is  said  to  be  delicate ;  it  is  probably  the  elops  and  acipenser  so 
celebrated  among  the  Romans. 

5.  We  give  the  name  of  Polyodon, — Spatularia, — to  certain 
fishes   of  the   Mississippi   river,    which   bear   some  analogy   to 

4.  What  are  the  characters  of  the  common  Sturgeon  '/     What   are   the 
characters   of  the   great   Sturgeon?     Where   is    it   found?     What  is  the 
Sterlet  ? 

5.  What  is  the  Polyodon  ? 

10 


122 ORDER  OF  SELACIIII. 

sturgeons :  they  are  remarkable  for  an  enormous  prolongation 
of  the  muzzle,  to  which  its  wide  borders  give  the  figure  of  a  leaf. 
The  mouth  is  well  cleft,  and  furnished  with  numerous  small 
teeth. 

6.  The  Chimceras  form  a  connecting  link  between  the  preceding 
and  the  sharks,  which  they  resemble  in  the  general  form  of  the 
body. 

CHONDROPTERYGII  BRANCHIIS  FIXIS. 

7.  The  Chondropterygians  with  fixed  branchiae,  which   form 
the  two  orders  of  Selachii  and  Cyclostomi,  possess  a   very   re- 
markable   character   in   the   arrangement   of  their    respiratory 
apparatus,  which  is  common  to  them  all.     Instead  of  having  the 
branchiae  free  on  the  external  edge,  and  suspended  in  a  common 
cavity,  from  which  the  water  escapes  by  a  single  opening,   they 
have  them,  on  the  contrary,  adherent  to  the  integuments,  so  that, 
for  the  escape  of  the  water  that  laves  them,  there  is  required  as 
many  openings  as  there  are  intervals  betwixt  them  ;  sometimes, 
however,   they   empty   into  a  common   canal,  which  serves  to 
transmit  the  water  externally  ;  and  their  cartilaginous  arches,  often 
suspended  in  the  flesh,  are  placed  opposite  to  the  external  edges 
of  the  branchiae.     In  other  respects  these  fishes  differ  very  much 
from  each  other,  and  are  divided  into  two  orders,  according   as 
they  are  provided  with  moveable  jaws  of  the  ordinary  form,  or 
according  as  these  organs  are  solidly  united  into  an  irnmove- 
able  ring,  only  suited  for  suction.     The  first  are  the  Selachii,  and 
the  second  the  Cyclostomi. 

ORDER    OF    SELACHI1. 

8.  This  order  comprises  the  greatest  number  of  cartilaginous 
fishes,  Rays   and   Sharks,  for    example.     Their  external  form 
varies ;  they   have   pectoral  fins ;  ventral   fins   situate   on    the 
abdomen  near  the  anus  ;  five  branchial  openings  in  the  form  of 
slits,  on  each  side  of  the  neck,  or  on  its  inferior  face,  and  the  jaws 
are  armed  with  teeth.     In  a  great  many  of  these  fishes,  there  is 
on  the  upper  surface  of  the  head,  two  openings,  called  vents,   or 
spiracles,  which  lead  to  the  branchiae,  and  serve  to  carry  off  the 
water,  necessary  to  respiration,  when  the  throat  of  the  animal  is 

6.  What  are  Chimseras  ? 

7.  What  are  the  characters  of  Chondropterygians  with,  fixed  branchiee  ? 
What  are  the  peculiarities  of  their  branchiae  ? 

8.  How  is  the  order  of  Selachii  characterised  ? 


SHARKS.  123 


distended  by  a  voluminous  prey.  Some  of  them  are  ovo-vivipa* 
raws,  and  others  lay  eggs  covered  by  a  hard,  horny  shell.  It  is 
divided  into  sharks,  saw- fishes,  rays,  &c. 

9.  The  SHARKS,  —  Sc/ualides, — constitute  a  large  tribe,  recog- 
nisable by  their  general  form,  which  differs  but  little  from  that  of 
ordinary  fishes.     Their  body  is   elongated,  the  tail   stout  and 
fleshy,  and  the  pectoral  fins  of  moderate  size.     Their   eyes  are 
situate  as  usual,  on  the  sides  of  the  head;  their  muzzle  presents 
nothing  remarkable,   and  the  openings  of  their   branchiae   are 
found  upon   the   sides   of  the   neck ;    the   shoulder   bones   are 
suspended   in   the  flesh,   without   articulating   either   with   the 
cranium  or  vertebral  column,  and  the  skin  is  rough   and  their 
flesh  coriaceous.     Most  of  them  attain  a  large  size,  and  are  very 

1  voracious. 

10.  The  Roussettes, — Set/Ilium, — are  distinguished  from  other 
Squali,  by  a  short,  obtuse  snout,  by  the  nostrils  being  pierced 
near  the  mouth,  and  surrounded  by  a  groove  which  extends   to 
the  lip.     These  fishes  are  provided  with  spiracles  and   an   anal 
fin ;  their  dorsals  are  behind  it,  and  the  caudal  is  elongated,  not 
forked  and  truncated  at 'the  end;  their   branchial   openings  are 
situate  partly  under  the  pectorals.     There  are  two  large  species 
on  the  coast  of  France,  the   Great    Roussette,   or    Sea-  Dog,  — 
Squalus  canicula, — (Fly.  62.)  which  is 

also  found  on  the  American  coast,  at- 
tains three  or  four  feet  in  length,  and 
the  Rock- Shark,  —  Squalus  catulus. 
The  skin  of  these  fishes,  which  is 
studded  with  a  multitude  of  small, 
stony  tubercles,  becomes  very  rough  SEA-DOG. 

on  drying,  and  is  then  employed  in  the  arts  for  polishing  hard 
bodies,  such  as  ivory. 

11.  Sharks  properly  so  called   have  the   nostrils  without   a 
groove,  and  situate  under  the  muzzle,  which  is  prominent.     The 
caudal  fin  is  more  or  less  forked.     Some  of  them  have  spiracles, 
and  in  others  they  are  wanting. 

12.  The  genus  Carcharias,  have  no  spiracles,  and   are   pro- 
vided with  an  anal  fin ;  their  muzzle  is  depressed  and  the  mouth 
is  strongly  armed  with  pointed,  trenchant  teeth,  which  are  gene- 
rally dentate  on  the  edges. 

9.  What  are  the  characters  of  Sharks  ? 

10.  How  are  Roussettes  distinguished  from  other  Sharks  ? 

1 1 .  How  are  Sharks  properly  so  called  characterised  ? 

12.  What  are  the  characters  of  the  genus  Carcharias? 


124 


SAW-FISHES.— RAYS. 


Fig.  63. 


SHARK  S   HEAD. 


13.  The    White  Shark, — Squalus  carcharias, — which   attains 
twenty-five  or  thirty  feet  in  length,  is  celebrated  for  its   ferocity. 
Its  vast  mouth,  (Fig.  63.)  is  furnished  with  triangular,  moveable 

teeth,  the  number  of  which  increases  with 
age.  In  the  young,  we  see  but  a  single 
row  ;  but,  in  the  adult,  we  find  six.  The 
strength  of  this  fish  is  very  great,  and  its 
motions  rapid  ;  its  voracity  knows  no 
bounds ;  hence,  it  is  among  the  most 
dangerous  animals.  Men  frequently  be- 
come the  prey  of  sharks,  and  as  many 
as  eight  or  ten  tunnies  have  been  some- 
times found  in  its  belly.  £eals,  tunnies, 
and  cods,  are  their  ordinary  food;  but 
they  attack  dead  bodies,  and  even  devour 
each  other.  It  appears  they  are  found  in 
every  sea ;  but  voyagers  often  confound 
with  the  carcharias,  other  species  of  sharks 
with  cutting  teeth. 

14.  The   SAW-FISHES, —  Pristis,  —  unite   to   the  form    of  the 
sharks,  a  body  flattened  in  front,  with  branchial  openings  beneath, 
as  in  the  Rays,  but  they  are  especially  distinguished  by  a  very  long 
snout,  depressed  in  form  of  a  sword-blade,  armed  on  each  side 
with  strong  bony  spines,  which  are  pointed  and  trenchant     This 
beak,  from  which  they  derive  their  name,  is  a  powerful  weapon, 
with  which  they  do  not  fear  to  attack  the  largest  whales.    The  true 
teeth  of  their  jaws  are  like  small  pebbles,  (Fig.  47,  Page  94.) 

15.  The  Common  Saw-Jtshi— Squalus  pristis, — which  is  found 
in  almost  every  sea,  attains  a  length  of  twelve  or  fifteen  feet.     Its 
skin  is  tuberculous,  of  a  very  dark  gray  on  the  back,  ash-colour 
on  the  sides,  and  whitish  under  the  belly. 

16.  The  RAYS, — Raid, — form   a   large  tribe.     Fishes  of  this 
genus  are  recognised  by  their  body  being  horizontally  flattened, 
and  similar  to  a  disk,  a  conformation  which  is  principally  due  to 
the  disposition  of  their  pectoral  fins,  which  are  extremely  broad 
and  fleshy,  and  are  joined  to  each  other  in  front  or  to  the  muzzle, 
and  extend  backwards  on  both  sides  of  the  abdomen,  nearly  to 
the  base  of  the  ventral  fins ;  the  eyes  as  well  as  the  spiracles  are 
placed  on  the  dorsal  face :  the  mouth,  the  nostrils,  and  the  open- 
ings of  the  branchiae  are  on  the  ventral  surface  of  the  body  ;   and 


13.  What  are  the  characters  of  the  White  Shark? 

14.  How  are  Saw-fishes  distinguished? 

15.  What  are  the  characters  of  the  common  Saw-fish  ? 

1 6.  How  is  the  genus  of  Rays  recognised  ? 


TORPEDO.  125 


the  dorsal  fins  are  almost  always  upon  the  tail,  which  is  very 
slender.  This  group  is  divided  Into  Rays  properly  so  called, 
Torpedoes,  &c. 

17,  The  Rays  properly  so  called, —  Raia,— have  the  body  of  a 
rhomboidal  form,  a  slender  tail,  fine  teeth,  &c.     Our  coast   fur- 
nishes many  species,  such  as  the  Skate,  Sting- Ray,  &c. 

18.  The   TORPEDOES,  or  ELECTRIC  RAYS, —  Torpedo, — have   a 
short,  but  fleshy  tail.     The  body   is   smooth   and  in  form   of  a 
nearly  circular  disk,  the  anterior  border  of  which  is  formed   by 
two  prolongations  of  the  snout,  which,  on  each  side  go   to   join 
the   pectoral   fins,  and   leave  between  these         p-     54^ 
organs,  and  the  head  and  branchiae,  an  oval 

space  (  Fig.  64. )  in  which  is  lodged  the 
electric  apparatus  of  these  fishes.  This  appa- 
ratus consists  of  a  multitude  of  vertical,  mem- 
branous tubes,  placed  close  together  like  the 
cells  of  a  honey-comb,  subdivided  by  hori- 
zontal partitions  into  small  cells  filled  with 
mucus,  and  supplied  by  numerous  large 
branches  of  the  pneumogastric  nerve.  In  these 
singular  organs  is  produced  the  electricity,  by 
aid  of  which  torpedoes  communicate  electric 
shocks  to  those  who  touch  them,  a  faculty 
possessed  by  the  malapteruri,  (Page  103.)  and  TORPEDO. 
gymnoti,  ( Page  115.)  but  which,  in  these  last,  is  seated  in  a  different 
structure.  These  fishes  are  less  powerful  than  the  gymnoti,  but 
can  nevertheless,  benumb  the  arm  of  a  person  touching  one  of 
them,  and  they  probably  resort  to  this  means  to  obtain  their 
prey.  Several  species  are  found  on  the  coasts  of  France. 

ORDER   OF    CYCLOST3MI. 

19.  This  last  order  of  cartilaginous  fishes  is  characterised  by 
the  singular  conformation  of  the  mouth,  and  is  composed  of  the 
most  imperfectly  organised  of  all  the  vertebrate  animals. 

20.  Their  body,  elongated,  naked  and  viscid,   is   unprovided 
with  thoracic  and  abdominal  extremities ;  for  both  the   pectoral 

*  Explanation  of  Fig.  64. — The  Torpedo,  or  Electric  Ray : — a.  a  portion 
of  the  skin  detached  to  show  one  of  the  electric  organs,  (6.) 

17.  What  are  the  characters  of  Rays  properly  so  called? 

18.  How  are  the  Torpedoes  characterised  ?     What  is  the  nature  of  their 
electric  apparatus  ? 

19.  How  is  the  order  of  Cyclostomi  characterised? 

20.  What  are  the  characters  of  fishes  of  this  order  ?    What  are  the  pecu- 
liarities of  their  respiratory  apparatus  ? 

10* 


126 


LAMPREYS. 


Fig.  65. 


and  ventral  fins  are  wanting.  Anteriorly,  they  terminate  in  a 
circular,  or  semi-circular,  fleshy  lip,  sustained  by  a  cartilaginous 
ring,  formed  by  the  solid  union  of  the  palatine  and  lower  jaw 
bones,  or  rather,  cartilages.  The  vertebra  are  reduced  to  simple 
cartilaginous  rings,  scarcely  distinct  one  from  the  other,  traversed 
by  a  tendinous  cord,  and  surmounted  by  a  second  ring  which  is 
more  solid,  surrounding  the  spinal  marrow.  There  are  no  true 
ribs  nor  branchial  arches ;  the  branchiae,  instead  of  being  pecti- 
nate, present  the  appearance  of  sacks  formed  by  the  union  of  the 
face  of  one  branchia,  with  that  of  a  corresponding  branchia  on  the 
opposite  side.  Sometimes  this  imperfect  skeleton  is  not  even 
cartilaginous,  but  always  remains  membranous.  The  organs  of 
the  senses  are  less  complicated  in  structure  than  they  are  *in 
ordinary  fishes,  They  have  no  swimming-bladder. 

21.  The  LAMPREYS, — Petromyzon, — are  recognised  by  seven 
branchial  openings  which  are  seen  on  both  sides  of  the  neck,  by 

their  circular  labial  ring,  armed  with 
several  ranges  of  strong  teeth,  and  horny 
tubercles,  (Fig.  65.);  the  tongue  is  also 
furnished  with  teeth,  and  is  carried  for- 
ward and  backward  like  a  piston,  which 
enables  the  animal  to  exert  the  faculty  of 
suction  and  use  its  buccal  disk,  not  only 
to  suck  up  the  juices  upon  which  it  feeds, 
but  to  attach  itself  to  solid  bodies.  The 
skin  of  these  fishes  is  raised  up  above  and 
beneath  the  tail  in  a  longitudinal  crest  that  takes  the  place  of 
fins,  which  are  sustained  only  by  vestiges  of  fin-rays.  The  water 
necessary  for  respiration  passes  from  the  mouth  to  the  branchiae, 
by  a  canal  situate  under  the  oesophagus,  and  pierced  laterally  by 
holes. 

22.  The   Sea    Lamprey, — Petromyzon  marinus,— (  Fig.  66. ) 
which  is  two  or  three  feet  long,  and  marbled  brown  on  a  yellowish 
ground,  inhabits  the  coasts  Fig,  66. 

of  France,  and  the  United 

States,  and   in   the   spring 

ascends  rivers  to  deposit  its 

eggs.     It  ordinarily  preys  on  marine  worms,  and  small  fishes,  or 

fragments  of  dead  bodies ;  but  it  attaches  itself  to   large   fishes, 

and  succeeds  in  piercing  their   skin  and   devouring  them.     Its 


MOUTH   OF    A    LAMPREy. 


SEA    LAMPREY. 


21.  What  are  the  characters  of  the  Lampreys  ?     What  is  the  structure  of 
their  mouth  ? 

22.  What  are   the   characters    of  the  Sea  Lampreys  ?     What  are  their 
habits  ?     What  are  the  characters  of  fresh  water  Lampreys  ?     Where  are 
Lampreys  found  ? 


MYXINES.  127 


flesh  is  much  esteemed.  The  Fresh  Water,  or  River  Lamprey, 
—Petromyzon  fluviatHis,—  \s  a  smaller  species,  seldom  exceeding 
eighteen  inches  in  length,  and  passes  the  greater  part  of  the 
year  in  fresh  water  lakes,  which  it  abandons  in  the  spring  to 
enter  rivers.  Its  colour  is  dark  olive  above,  and  yellowish  or 
silvery  beneath.  It  is  found  in  the  fresh  waters  of  New  England. 
A  third  species  is  the  small  River  Lamprey,  eight  or  ten  inches  in 
length ;  it  also  inhabits  fresh  waters,  and  is  distinguished  from  the 
preceding  by  its  dorsal  fins,  which  are  continuous  or  united, 
instead  of  being  distinct. 

23.  The  Hag-jishes, — Myxine — have  the  maxillary  ring  entirely 
membranous,  and  armed  above  by  a  single  fang-like  tooth,  or  they 
are  entirely  destitute  of  teeth,  while  the  tongue  is  armed  on  each 
side  with  two  horny  plates  deeply  serrated,  so  that,  at  first  sight, 
they  might  be  supposed  to  have  lateral  jaws,  like  articulated  ani- 
mals with  which  in  fact,  some  authors  have  placed  them  ;  in  other 
respects  their  organization  is  analogous  to  that  of  lampreys.  Their 
body  is  cylindrical,  and  furnished  posteriorly  with  a  fin  which  sur- 
rounds the  tail;  their  mouth  is  circular,  surrounded  by  eight  cirri, 
and  its  upper  margin  is  pierced  by  a  spiracle  which  communicates 
with  its  interior.  They  have  no  vestiges  of  eyes,  and  their  body 
is  lubricated  by  a  great  quantity  of  mucus.  Thus  provided,  the 
Myxine,  when  it  attacks  its  prey,  uses  its  mouth  like  a  cupping- 
glass,  and  plunges  its  fang  into  its  flesh ;  and,  thus  securing  a 
firm  hold,  the  lingual  saws  tear  their  way  into  its  very  vitals. 
Some,  called  Heptatrennis,  have  seven  branchial  apertures  on 
each  side  of  the  neck;  others,  named  Gastrobranchus,  have  on 
each  side,  a  canal,  which  receives,  through  particular  holes,  the 
water  coming  from  the  branchia?,  and  empties  externally  by  a 
hole  situated  at  about  one  third  of  the  length  of  the  body ;  and 
in  others  again,  the  branchial  openings  are  arranged  as  in  the 
lamprey  and  heptatremus ;  but  the  fleshy  lip,  which  is  unprovided 
with  teeth,  is  only  semi-circular,  and  covers  only  the  upper  part 
of  the  mouth  which  prevents  them  from  using  it  as  a  means  of 
attaching  themselves.  These  last  myxines,  which  are  named 
rfmmocetes,  have  an  entirely  soft  and  membranous  skeleton;  they 
keep  in  the  mud  of  small  streams,  and  have  many  of  the  habits 
of  worms,  which  they  resemble  also  in  form. 

It  may  be  well  for  the  reader,  who  has  followed  us  through 
our  first,  second,  third,  and  fourth  books,  to  remark  that  we 
began  our  account  of  the  animal  world,  with  a  general  description 
of  the  most  perfectly  organized  being,  and  we  found  man,  inde- 
pendently of  his  possessing  an  immortal  soul,  the  most  complete* 

23.  What  are  the  characters  of  the  Myxines  ? 


128  CONCLUSION, 


and  most  wonderful  of  all  animal  structures.  Without  any  other 
reason,  he  is  placed  at  the  head  of  the  great  class  of  mammals ; 
and  it  may  be  observed,  as  we  advanced  in  our  descriptions,  that 
the  animals  became  less  and  less  perfectly  organised  :  the  nervous 
system,  the  respiratory  and  •  circulatory  systems  grow  less  and 
less  perfect  as  we  proceed.  On  reaching  the  reptiles,  we  discover, 
for  example,  that  their  heart  has  lost  one  ventricle,  and  their 
blood  is  cold ;  and  in  fishes,  we  find  it  has  also  lost  an  auricle, 
and  consists  only  of  a  single  auricle,  and  a  single  ventricle.  In 
the  fishes  too,  we  observe  striking  changes  in  the  composition  of 
bone ;  and  the  skeleton  gradually  loses  its  hardness,  until  we 
come  to  the  Myxines,  where  it  is  soft  and  membranous ;  or,  it 
might  be  said,  the  internal  hard  frame  called  the  skeleton,  has 
disappeared,  and  we  are  brought  step  by  step,  to  the  considera- 
tion of  soft  animals  without  vertebrae ;  but,  nevertheless,  they 
are  provided  with  organs  suitable  for  maintaining  the  kind  of  life 
with  which  they  are  endowed  by  the  Omniscient  Creator  of  all 
things. 

This  concludes  our  account  of  the  vertebrate  animals,  which 
constitute  the  FIRST  BRANCH  of  the  Animal  Kingdom,  We 
have  next  to  consider  the  SECOND  BRANCH,  composed  exclusively 
of  the  Molluscous  Animals,  the  study  of  which  embraces  Con- 
chology,  or  the  History  of  Shells. 


END    OF   THE    FOURTH    BOOK    OF   NATURAL    HISTORY. 


GLOSSARY. 


HERPETOLOGY  AND  ICHTHYOLOGY. 


ABDOMEN. — From  the  Latin,  abdere,l 
to  conceal,     The  belly.     The  chief 
viscera  contained  in  the  abdomen 
are  the  stomach,  intestines,   liver, 
&c.  &c. 
ABDOM'UIAL.— Relating   or  belonging 

to  the  abdomen. 

ABDOMINA'LEP. — Latin.  Plural  of  ab- 
dominalis.  Relating  to  the  abdo- 
men. Applied  to  an  order  of  fishes, 
which  have  the  ventral  fins  placed 
beneath  the  abdomen.  (See  p.  99.) 

ABOMA. — Systematic  name  of  a  spe- 
cies of  Boa,  (Page  57.) 

ABRAMIS. — The  generic  name  of  the 
Breams. 

ABSORP'TION. — From  the  Latin  absor- 
bere,  to  drink,  to  suck  up.  The 
function  of  absorbent  vessels,  by 
virtue  of  which  they  take  up  sub- 
stances from  without  or  within  the 
body. 

AcANTHopTERv'ciAN.-From  the  Greek 
akantha,  a  spine,  and  pteron,  wing. 
Applied  to  fishes  that  have  bony 
fin-rays. 

ACANTHOPVERY'GII. — Latin.  Plural  of 
acanthopterygius.  Same  derivation. 
Name  of  the  first  order  of  the  class 
of  fishes,  given  to  them  because 
they  have  bony  fins. 

ACANTHU'RI — Latin.  Plural  of  acan- 
thu'rus.  From  the  Greek,  akantha, 
a  spine,  and  oura,  tail.  Generic 
name  of  a  kind  of  fishes  vulgarly 
called  Surgeon,  because  they  have 
sharp,  lancet-like  spines  on  the 
tail.  (Page  58.) 

ACI'PENSER — Latin.     A  Sturgeon. 

ACUTUS. — Latin.  Sharp- pointed. — 
Acute. 

ADI' POSE — From  the  Latin,  adeps,  fat. 
Belonging  or  relating  te  fat. 


Egyptian.  Be- 
longing  to  Egypt. 

AGA'MIAN. — From  the  Greek  a,  priva- 
tive, and gamos,  marriage.  Having 
no  sex.  Applied  to  certain  Lizards. 

ALO'SA. — Generic  name  of  the  Shad. 

ALVK'OLI. — Latin.  Plural  of  alveolus. 
Sockets  of  the  teeth. 

ALVE'OLUS.  —  Latin.  The  hole  in 
which  a  tooth  is  placed. 

AMMOCETES.— From  the  Greek  ammos, 
sand.  Name  of  a  genus  of  fishes 
that  live  in  the  sand  or  mud,  (See 
page  127.) 

AMPHIB'IOUS. — From  the  Greek  amphi, 
double,  and  bios,  life.  That  which 
partakes  of  two  natures,  so  as  to 
live  in  two  elements ;  as  in  the  air 
and  water. 

AMPHISB^NA. — From  the  Greek,  am- 
phis,  both,  and  hainein,  to  move, 
to  walk.  Walking  both  ways.  The 
Generic  name  of  a  serpent. 

AMPHI'UMA.— Generic  name  of  a  kind 
of  Salamander. 

ANA'BAS. — From  the  Greek,  anabaino, 
I  ascend,  I  embark.  Generic  name 
of  a  kind  of  fishes  that  crawl  on 
the  land,  arid  live  for  a  time  out  of 
water.  (Page.  95.) 

A'NAL. — Belonging  or  relating  to  the 
anus.  The  anal  Jin  obtains  its 
name  from  being  near  the  anus. 

ANA'LOGOUS. — From  the  Greek,  ana, 
between,  and  logos,  reason.  Having 
some  resemblance  or  relation, 
though  differing  in  essential  par- 
ticulars. Similar. 

ANASTOMO'SIS. — From  the  Greek,  ana, 
between,  and  stoma,  mouth.  The 
communication  between  two  ves- 
sels or  nerves. 


130      HERPETOLOGY  ANt)  ICHTHYOLOGY:— GLOSSARY. 


AN  ASTOMO'SE.— Vessel^  or  nerves  th:it 
communicate  with  each  other  are 
said  to  anastomose. 
ANCHYI.OSED, —  an-ky-los'-ed.  From 
the  Gteek,  a'jkule,  stiif-joint.  A 
joint  or  aiticulation  whica  lias  be- 
come immoveable  is  said  to  be 
anchylosed. 

ANGUILLA. — Latin.     An  eel. 

ANGUILLIFORMES. — From  the  Latin. 
an<ruiUa,  eel,  and  forma,  shape. 
Eel-shaped.  Systematic  name  of 
a  tribe  of  fishes  which  are  eel- 
shaped. 

ANGUI'NA.  —  Latin.  Form*  d  from 
anguis,  a  serpent.  Systematic 
name  of  a  family  of  ophidians. 

ANGUI'NUS. — Latin.  Belonging  or  re- 
lating to  serpents. 

ANGUIS. — Latin.     A  snake. 

ANO'LIS. — A  kind  of  saurian,  called 
anoli,  in  the  Antilles. 

ANO'LIUS. —  Latin.  Generic  name  of 
the  Anolis. 

ANOU'RA. — From  the  Greek,  a,  or  an, 
privative,  and  oura,  tail.  Without 
a  tail.  The  systematic  name  of  a 
family  of  Batrachians. 

ANTE-OPER  CULUM. — A  part  of  the  gill- 
cover,  or  operculum,  which  is  be- 
fbre  the  operculum  proper.  (See 
Page  79.) 

ANTEPENULTIMATE. — From  the  Latin, 
ante.,  before,  pene,  almost,  and 
vltimus,  the  last.  That  which  is 
immediately  before  the  next  to  the 
last ;  or,  that  which  is  immediately 
before  the  penultimate. 

A'NUS. — Latin.  The  fundament :  the 
inferior  opening  of  the  bowels. 

A'ORTA. — From  the  Greek,  aorte,  a 
vessel.  The  great  primary  artery 
which  conveys  blood  to  all  parts  of 
the  body. 

APO'DA. — From  the  Greek  a,  priva- 
tive, and  pous,  (in  the  genitive 
podosy )  foot.  Footless  ;  without 
feet. 

AFO'DES. — Latin. — Same  derivation 
as  apoda.  Applied  to  an  order  of 
fishes. 

APODOUS. — Same  derivation  as  apoda. 
Without  feet. 


APPARA'TUS. — From  the  Latin,  ad, 
for,  and  parare,  to  prepare.  A 
collection  of  instruments  or  organs 
for  any  purpose  whatever.  An 
assemblage  of  organs. 

ARBORE'A. — Latin.  Belonging  or  re- 
lating  to  a  tree  ;  branched  like  a 
tree. 

ARCHES  OF  THK  BRANCHIAE.  —  A  sys- 
tem of  sm  til  bones  joined  together 
by  ligaments,  which  supports  a 
series  of  peciiniform  vascular 
fringes,  constituting  the  gills  of 
fishes.  Trie  branchial  arches,  which 
are  generally  four  in  number  on 
each  side,  are  attached  by  one  ex- 
tremity to  an  intermediate  chain 
of  bones,  situated  in  the  middle 
line  behind  the  hyoid  bone,  while 
by  their  opposite  extremity  they 
are  connected  by  ligaments  to  the 
under  surface  of  the  cranium. 
They  are  perfectly  flexible,  and  so 
arranged  as  to  prevent  food  taken 
into  the  mouth,  from  being  forced 
out  through  the  branchial  fissures 
with  the  issuing  streams  of  water; 
so  that  in  reality,  these  pieces  fulfil 
in  their  way,  the  same  office  as 
the  epiglottis  of  mammals. 

ARM'ATURE. — Armour.  The  arma- 
tute  of  the  mouth  consists  of  the 
teeth,  &c. 

ARTER'IAL. — Belonging  or  relating  to 
arteries. 

ARTERIAL'ISED.  —  When  venous  or 
dark  blood,  by  the  process  of  res- 
piration, is  converted  into  arterial 
blood,  is  it  said  to  be  arterialised. 

ARTE'RV. — From  the  Greek,  aer,  air, 
and  terein,  to  preserve,  because,  it 
was  anciently  believed  that  the 
arteries  were  filled  with  air  like  the 
windpipe.  The  vessels  which  con- 
vey blood  from  the  heart  to  all  parts 
of  the  body,  are  called  arteries. 

ARTICULAR  SURFACE. — The  surface  of 
that  part  of  a  bone  which  forms  an 
articulation  or  joint. 

ARTIC'ULATE. — From  the  Latin  articu- 
lus,  which  is  the  diminutive  of 
artus,  a  limb,  which  is  derived 
from  arthron,  a  joint.  To  join  or 


HERPETOLOGY  AND  ICHTHYOLOGY:— GLOSSARY.      131 


joint  with.     Also,  to  form  words,  to 
otter. 

ARTICULATION. — A  joint. 

ASPHYX'IA. — From  the  Greek,  a,  pri 
vative,  and  sphuxis,  pulse.  With- 
out pulse.  Suspended  animation. 

ASPHYX'IATE. — In  a  state  or  condition 
of  suspended  animation. 

AT'ROFHIED. — From  the  Greek  a,  pri- 
vative,  and  trophe,  nourishment : 
without  nourishment.  Wasted  : 
when  the  whole  bulk  of  the  body 
is  progressively  and  morbidly 
diminished,  or  wasted,  it  is  said  to 
be  atrophied,  or  in  a  state  of 
atrophy. 

ATRONA'SUS. — Specific  name  of  the 
Minnow. 

AURA'TUS. — Latin.     Golden. 

AUR'ICLE. — From  the  li-atm,  auricula, 
which  is  the  diminutive  of  aim's, 
ear.  A  part  of  the  heart  is  so 
called  from  its  resemblance  to  an 
ear.  Also  applied  to  a  part  of  the 
ear. 

AX'OLOTUS. — Latin.  Generic  name 
of  the  axolotls. 

AXOLO'TL. —  Mexican.  Name  of  a 
kind  of  batrachian. 

BALIS'TES. — Systematic  name  of  cer- 
tain fishes  of  the  family  of  Sclero- 
dermi,  given  to  them  by  Artedi, 
from  their  Italian  appellation, 
Pesce  balestra,  (  Cross-bow-fish, ) 
which  is  derived  from  a  supposed 
similitude  between  the  motion  of 
their  great  dorsal  spine,  and  that 
of  a  cross-bow« 

BARBA'TUS. — Latin.  Bearded;  having' 
a  beard. 

BARB'US. — The  generic  name  of  the  j 
Barbels. 

BASILIS'CUS. — Latin.  A  basilisk  ;  a 
kind  of  saurian. 

BATRACH'IA.  —  Ba-trak'e-a.  Latin. 
(Plural.)  Balrachians. 

BATRACH'IAN. — Ba-trak'-e-an.  From 
the  Greek,  batrachos,  frog.  A 
name  given  to  those  reptiles  which 
resemble  frogs  in  their  mode  of 
organization. 

BELO'NE. — Be  lo'-ne.  From  the  Greek 
b  clone,  point  of  an  arrow ;  a  kind 


of  fLh.  Specific  name  of  the  Sea- 
pike. 

BE'RUS. — Specific  name  of  the  com- 
mon viper,  given  by  Linnaeus. 
This  name  was  only  used  by 
authors  of  the  middle  century. 

BI'FID. — From  the  Latin,  bis,  twice, 
and  findere,  to  split.  Split  or 
divided  into  two  separate  parts. 

BI'FURCATE. — From  the  Latin,  bis, 
twice,  and  furca,  fork.  To  divide 
or  separate  into  two  branches. 
Divided  or  separated  into  two 
branches. 

BI'MANA. — Latin;  formed  from  bis, 
two,  and  manus,  hand.  Having 
two  hands.  Systematic  name  of  a 
kind  of  saurian  that  has  anterior 
extremities  only. 

BI'PEDES. — Bi'-pe-des.  Latin,  plural ; 
formed  from  bis,  two,  and  pes,  foot. 
Having  two  feet.  Applied  to  Sau- 
rians  that  have  abdominal  exlremi- 
ties  alone. 

BRACH'IAL. — Brak-'e-al.  From  the 
Latin,  brachium,  an  arm.  Belong- 
ing or  relating  to  the  arm. 

BRA'MA. — Systematic  name  of  the 
Castagno'es. 

BRANCH'I^;. — Brank'-e-ae.  Latin,  plu- 
ral of  branchia.  From  the  Greek, 
bragchos,  throat.  The  gills  of  fishes. 

BRANCH'IAL. — Brank'-e-al.  Belonging- 
or  relating  to  the  branchiae.  Bran- 
chial arches,  see,  ARCHES  OF  THE 
BRANCHIAE.  Branchial  openings^ 
apertures  for  the  passage  of  water 
from  the  gill--. 

BRANCHI'FERA. — Brank'-i-fe-ra.  From 
the  Latin,  branchiae,  gil  s,  and  fero, 
I  bear.  Gill-bearing.  Systematic 
name  of  a  family  of  batrachians. 

BRANCHIIS. — Brank'-e-is.  Latin,  plu- 
ral, (ablative.)  Branchiis  liberis, 
with  iree  branchiae.  Brunchiis 
fixis,  with  fixed  branchia?. 

BKANCHIOSTE'GOUS. —  Brank-i  oste'- 
gous.  From  the  Greek,  bragchia, 
the  branchiae  or  gills,  and  stegd,  I 
cover.  Belonging  or  relating  to 
the  gill-cover.  The  ffreat  fissure 
that  exists  on  each  side  between 
the  head  and  shoulder  of  an  osseous 


132      HERPETOLOGY  AND  ICHTHYOLOGY:— GLOSSARY. 


fish,  wherein  the  gills  are  situated,  •  CARI'NA. — Latin.     The  keel   or    hot- 
is  not  closed  merely  by  the    oper- 1      torn  part   of  a   ship.     A   sort   of 
culur  bones,  but  likewise  by  a  broad       ridge  or  elevation, 
membranous  expansion,  called  the  CARI'NA. — Latin.     Plural  of  carina. 
Branchiostegous  membrane,  which  ^CARI'NATE. — Marked   with   a   carina 
is  adherent  to  the  hyoid  bon  >,  and       or  ridge. 

assists  in  forming  the  great  valve  CARNI'VOROUS. — From  the  Latin  care, 
of    the   operculum.       This  mem-  j      (in  the  genitive,  earn ?s,)  flesh,  and 
brane  is  supported  by  a  series  of^     voro,  I  eat.     Flesh  eating;  applied 
slender   bones,   derived    from    thej     to  animals  that  feed' on  flesh, 
external  margin  of  each  branch  offCA'ROTio. — The  great  arterial  trunks, 
the    hyoid    bone,   and   these    ares      which  convey  blood   to   the    head 
named  from  their  office,  the  Bran-^     are  called  carotid  arteries. 
chiostegous  Rays.  <CAR'PIO. — Specific  name  of  the  com- 

BUC'CVE. — Buk-say.     Latin,  plural  of>      mon  carp. 

bucca,    cheek.       Bucca    loricata,  CAR'PUS — From  the   Greek,  Jcarpos, 
mailed-cheeks.  \      the  wrist.     That  part  which  is  be- 


BUC'CAL,— Buk'-kal.  From  the  Latin, 
bucca,  cheek.  Belonging  or  rela- 
ting to  the  cheek. 

BU'FO. — Latin.     A  toad. 

BUNGA'RUS. — Barbarous  Latin.  The 
generic  name  of  tfye  Rock-snakes. 

C^E 'CILIA.  —  Latin.  '  Formed  from 
CfBctts,  blind.  Systematic  name  of 
a  kind  of  batrachian,  which  has 
very  small  eyes,  and  sometimes 
none. 

CAIMA'N. — Spanish.     Alligator. 

CALCA'REOUS. — From  the  Latin,  calx, 
lime.  Containing,  or  partaking  of 
the  nature  of  lime. 

CANIC'ULA. — Latin.     A  dog-fish. 

CAP'ILLARY. — From  the   Latin,    cap 
illus,    a   hair.       Small,   hair-like 
The  capillary  vessels,  are  the  ex 
tremely  minute  terminations  of  the 
arteries,  and  commencing  branches 
of  the  veins. 

CARAP'AX. — The  systematic  name  o 
the  upper  shell  of  tortoises. 

CARBON'IC    A'CID.  —  This   is   a   i 
which  neither  supports  combustion 
nor  respiration.     It  constitutes  an 
essential  ingredient  in  effervescing 
drinks,  such  as  those  known  unde 
the  name   of  soda-water,    minera 
water,  &c. 

CARCHAR'IAS. — From  the  Greek,  car 
charos,  rude,  snappish,  wicked 
The  systematic  name  of  ceitain 
sharks. 


tween  the  fore  arm  and  hand. 

CAR'TILAGE. — Gristle.  A  solid  part 
of  the  animal  body  of  medium  con- 
sistence  between  bone  and  liga- 
ment. 

CARTILAGINOUS.  —  Partaking  of  the 
nature  of  cartilage. 

CAT'ALKPSY. — From  the  Greek,  kata~ 
lepsis,  detention,  which  is  formed 
from  katalambano,  I  arrest,  I  hold; 
because  every  kind  of  motion  is 
arrested  in  catalepsy.  A  stupify- 
ing  disease  which  suddenly  seizes 
an  individual,  causing  him  to  re- 
main in  the  situation  in  which  he 
wa«,  at  the  moment  of  attack,  and 
imparting  to  the  limbs  the  power 
of  retaining  any  position  that  may 
be  given  to  them,  and  depriving- 
him  completely  of  sensation  and 
voluntary  motion,  during  the 
paroxyism. 

CA'TULUS. — Latin.  Properly,  a  whelp, 
a  young  dog.  Specific  name  of  a 
shark. 

CAU'DAL. — From  the  Latin,  cavda, 
tail.  Belonging  or  relating  to  the 
tail.  The  caudal  Jin,  generally 
increases  the  length  of  the  tail. 

CAU'STIC. — From  the  Greek,  kaid,  I 
burn.  Articles  which  have  the 
property  of  burning  or  disorga- 
nising animal  substances,  such  as 
pure  potash,  nitrate  of  silver,  &c. 
are  called  caustics. 


HERPETOLOGY  AND  ICHTHYOLOGY:— GLOSSARY.      t33 


CAIJ'TERISE. — The  same  derivation  as 
caustic.  To  bum  with  a  cautery 
or  red  hot  iron.  To  apply  caustic. 

CAVK'RNOUS.-— Filled  with  small  cavi- 
ties or  caverns,  as  a  sponge. 

CAVJ'AR,  or  CAVIARE.  —  A  culinary 
preparation,  much  used  by  certain 
people,  and  made  on  the  shores  of 
the  Black  and  Caspian  Seas,  from 
the  roe  or  eg<rs  of  the  sturgeon, 
mixed  with  salt  and  other  condi- 
ments. 

CEL'LULAR. — Composed  of  cells. 

CENTRONOTUS. — Systematic  name  o 
the  pilot-fish. 

CEPHALUS.  —  ke'-fa-lus.  From  the 
Greek,  kephale,  head.  Systematic 
name  of  the  sun-fishes,  given  to 
them  for  their  appearance  of  having 
the  posterior  part  of  the  bo  ly  cut 
off. 

CERASTES. — From  the  Greek,  kcras,  a 
horn.  Specific  name  of  the  horned 
viper.  ^ 

CER'VICAL. — From  the  Latin,  cervix, 
the  neck.  Belonging  or  relating 
to  the  neck. 

CHCETODON. — From  the  Greek,  cheo, 
I  contain,  and  odontos,  (genitive  of 
odous,}  a  tooth.  Generic  n;ime  of 
certain  fishes  of  the  family  of 
Squamipennes. 

CHALCIDES. — From  the  Greek, clalkis, 
a  serpent  with  a  head  resembling 
that  of  lizards.  Generic  name  oi 
a  kind  of  saurian. 

CHAM^E'LEO. — kam'-e-leo.  From  the 
Greek,  chamai,  earth,  and  leon, 
lion  :  (because  it  pursues  flies,  as 
the  lion  does  other  animals.)  Sys- 
tematic name  of  the  chameleons. 

CiiAMiEi.E'oNiDjE. —  From  the  Greek, 
chamailedn,  chameleon,  and  eidos, 
resemblance.  Systematic  name  o 
animals  that  resemble  chameleons 

CHE'LONIA. — From  the  Greek,  chelone 
a  sea-tortoise.  Systematic  name 
of  the  order  which  includes  the 
tortoises. 

CHER'S^EA. — Specific  name  of  a  viper 

CHJM^'RA. — ky-me'-ra.  A  kind  o 
fish,  so  called,  from  the  fantastic 
figure  it  assumes  when  carelessly 
dried. 

11 


CHONPROPTER'YGIAN.  —  kon-drop-ter'- 
igian.  From  the  Greek,  chondros, 
cartilage,  and  ptertiz,  (in  the  geni- 
tive, ptervgos,)  fin  or  wing.  Sys- 
tematic name  of  fished  with  a  car- 
tilaginous  skeleton. 

CHONDROPTKRYGII.  kon-drop-ter-i-ge-i. 
Latin.  Plural  of  chondropietygius. 
Chondropterygians.  Chondroptery- 
gii  branchiis  Jixis,  chondroptery- 
gi.ins  with  fixed  branchiae.  Chon- 
dropterygii  branchiis  tiberis,  ehon- 
dro,jterygians  with  free  branchiae. 

CHYLE. — kile.  From  the  Greek  c/m/os, 
nutritious  juice.  A  nutritive  fluid 
which  is  extracted  from  food  by 
the  action  of  the  digestive  organs. 

CHRYSO'PHRIS. — kris-o'-fris.  From  the 
Greek,  ctirusos,  gold,  and  ophrus, 
eye-brow.  Golden  eye-brow.  Sys- 
tematic name  of  the  daurade,  given 
to  itori  account  of  a  crescent-shaped 
band  of  golden  hue,  which  extends 
from  one  eye  to  the  other. 

CIRRI. — Latin.     Plural  of  cirrus. 

CIRRUS. — Latin.  A  tu  t,  a  beard,  a 
fringe.  Applied  to  that  which 
hangs  in  form  of  mustache,  or 
beard,  from  the  end  and  sides  of 
the  mouth  of  certain  fishes. 

CI'STUDK. — From  the  Greek,  kiste,  a 
chest,  a  coffer.  Name  of  a  kind  of 
tortoise.  The  box  tortoise. 

CLA'VICLE. — From  the  Latin,  clavis, 
key.  The  collar-bone,  so  called 
from  its  resemblance  to  a  key. 

CLO'ACA. — Latin.  A  common  sewer. 
From  the  Greek,  kluzo,  I  wosh. 
The  pouch  at  the  extremity  of  the 
intestinal  canal,  in  which  the  solid 
and  liquid  excretions  are  com- 
mingled  in  birds,  fishes,  and  rep- 
tiles. 

CLUPEA. — Latin.     A  shad. 

CLUTEJE. — Latin.     Plural  of  Clupea. 

COBITIS. — Generic  name  of  certain 
fishe*.  From  the  Greek,  kobitis, 
the  name  of  an  unknown  fish. 

CO'BRA  CAP'ELLO — Portuguese.  Cobra, 
snake ;  capello,  a  cawl,  a  hood : 
hood-snake.  Name  of  a  venomous 
serpent. 

COECA,  or  C^CA.— Latin.  Plural  of 
ooecum. 


134     HERPETOLOGY  AND  ICHTHYOLOGY:— GLOSSARY. 


C<ECAL — Belonging  or  relating  to  the 
coecum. 

COCCUM. — From  the  Latin,  coecus, 
blind.  The  blind  gut,  so  called 
from  its  being  perforated  or  open 
at  one  end  only. 

COLON. — A  portion  of  the  large  in- 
testine. 

COLUBER. — Latin.  Name  of  a  ser- 
pent. 

CONCHOLOGY. —  kon-kol'-o-gy.  From 
the  Greek,  kogchulion,  a  shell,  and 
logos,  a  discourse.  A  treatise  on 
shells. 

CO.NDYLE. — From  the  Greek, kondulos, 
a  knot,  an  eminence,  a  bump.  A 
small  round  eminence  of  bone 
entering  into  the  composition  of 
an  articulation. 

COR  AGO!  D. — From  the  Greek,  Jcorax,  a 
wow,  and  eidos,  resemblance.  Re- 
..embling  the  beak  of  a  crow.  Name 
of  a  thick,  short,  process  of  bone, 
situate  at  the  anteriar  upper  part  of 
the  scapula  in  man.  In  birds  and 
eptiles  this  process  is  represented 
by  a  separate  bone. 

CORDIFORM. — From  the  Latin,  cor, 
(in  the  genitive,  cordis)  heart,  and 
forma,  shape.  Heart-shnped. 

CORIA'CEOUS. — From  the  Latin,  cori- 
aceus,  consisting  of  leather. — 
Leathery.  Formed  of  leather. 

CORPUSCULE. — A  small  body,  a  par- 
ticle of  matter,  an  atom. 

CORSELET — A  light  armour  for  the 
front  part  of  the  body. 

CRA'NIAL. — Belonging  or  relating  to 
the  cranium. 

CRA'NIDM. — Latin.     The  skull. 

CROCODILIAN.  —  Of  the  family  of 
crocodiles. 

CROCODI'LIDA.  • —  From  the  Greek, 
krokodeilos,  crocodile,  and  eidos, 
resemblance.  Systematic  name  of 
the  family  of  crocodiles. 

CROCODI'LUS. —  Latin.  A  crocodile. 
According  to  some,  from  the  Greek, 
krohos,  saffron,  and  deilos,  fearful, 
timid,  because  the  land  crocodile 
is  afraid  of  the  sight  and  odour  of 
saffron  :  according  to  others,  from 
kroke,  shore,  and  deilos,  timid,  be- 


cause the  water  crocodiles  fear  the 
shore,  where  men  set  snares  for 
them. 

CRO'TALUS. — Latin.  Formed  from  the 
Greek,  krotaleo,  1  make  a  noise. 
Rattle  snake. 

CRYSOLENCAS.— Specific  name  of  the 
Shiner. 

CUTA'NEOUS. — From  the  Latin,  cutis, 
skin.  Belonging  or  relating  to  the 
skin. 

CYCLO'STOMI. — Latin.  Plural  of  Cyc- 
lostomus.  From  the  Greek,  kuklos, 
circle,  and  stoma,  mouth.  Syste- 
matic  name  of  an  order  ol  fishes. 

CYPRINOI'DES.  —  From  the  Greek, 
kuprinos,  a  carp,  and  eidos,  resem- 
blance. Systematic  name  of  a 
family  of  fishes. 

CYPRINID^E.  —  Same  derivation  as 
cyprinoides ;  and  applied  in  the 
same  way. 

CYPRINUS. — Latin.     A  carp. 

DACTYLOP'TERUS. — Dak-te-lop'-te-rus. 
From  the  Greek?  daktulos,  finger, 
and  ptfron,  wing  Wing. fingered. 
Systematic  name  of  the  tr.ue  fly- 
ing-fishes. 

DAUKADE  — French.     Name  of  a  fish. 

DEGLUTITION.  —  From  the  Latin, 
deglutire,  to  swallow.  The  act 
by  which  substances  are  passed 
from  the  mouth  into  the  stomach, 
through  the  pharynx  and  eso- 
phagus. 

DEN'TATE. — From  the  Latin,  dens,  a 
tooth.  Notched  or  toothed. 

DIA'PHRAGM. — Di'-a-fram.  From  the 
Greek,  diaphragma,  a  partition.  A 
fleshy  or  muscular  partition,  be- 
tween the  cavity  of  the  chest  and 
cavity  of  the  abdomen. 

DIODON. — From  the  Greek,  dis,  twice, 
and  odous,  (in  ihe  genitive,  odontos) 
tooth.  Systematic  name  of  a 
genus  of  fishes  which  have  but 
two  teeth. 

DISCOBOLI. — Latin.  Plural  of  disco- 
bolus, formed  from  the  Greek, 
diskos,  a  disk,  and  ballo,  I  throw. 
A  quoit-player.  Systematic  name 
of  a  family  of  fishes  whose  ven- 
tral tins  form  a  disk. 


HERPETOLOGY  AND  ICHTHYOLOGY:— GLOSSARY.      135 


DORSAL. — From  the  Latin,  dorsum,  I  EPIDEK'MIS. — From  the  Greek,  epi, 
the  back.  Belonging1  or  relating  upon,  and  derma,  skin.  The  scarf, 
to  the  back. 

DUCT. — A  canal,  pipe,  or  conduit. 

DOCTOR.— Latin.     A  leader. 

ECHE'NEIS. — E-ke'-nice.       From 

Greek,  echo,  I  hold,    I    stop,   and  \     Pike. 

naus,  ship:  a  ship-holder,  an   an- 1  EXCRETORY. — An  excretory  vessel,  or 

chor.        Systematic    name     of   a  $      duct,  is  one  which   transmits   the 


skin;  the  cuticle. 

ERIX. — Generic  name  of  a  serpent. 
E'SOCES. — Latin.     Plural  of  esox. 
the  I  Esox. — Latin.     Generic  name  of  the 


name 

family  of  fishes,  which  the  ancients  > 
supposed  were  capable  of  arresting 
the  course  of  a  vessel  under  sail. 

ELAI-S. — From  the  Greek,  daps,  or 
elops,  a  particular  serpent.  Syste- 
matic name  of  certain  vipers. 

ELKC'TRIC. — Belonging  or  relating  to 
electricity. 

ELECTRIC'ITY.  —  From  the  Greek, 
elektron,  amber,  the  substance  in 
which  this  imponderable  cause  of 
certain  phenomena,  was  first  ob- 
served. The  property  which  cer- 
tain bodies,  such  as  glass,  wax, 


fluid,  secreted  by  a   gland,  either 

externally,  or  into  the  reservoirs, 

in  which  it  has  to  be  deposited. 
EX'OCETUS. — Latin.      Generic   name 

of  a  kind  of  flying-fish. 
EXTENSILE.  —  Susceptible   of   being 

stretched  out  or  extended. 
EXTREMITIES. — The  limbs;  the  legs, 

arms,  wings,  fins,  5cc. 
FACETTE'. — French.   The  diminutive 

of  face.     A  small  face:  the  articu- 


lar facetie  of  a  hone,  is  a  small 
circumscribed  portion  of  its  sur- 
face. 

sulphur,   &c.,  acquire,   by    being    FARIO. — Specific  name  of    the  com- 

rubbed,  of  attracting  or  repelling  $      mon  trout. 

each  other.  In  a  more  modern  \  FASCIC'ULI. — Latin.  Plural  of  fasci- 
culus. 


and  extended  signification,  the 
power  and  action  of  a  peculiar, 
imponderable  fluid,  the  accumu- 
lation of  which  is  manifested  by 
sparks,  and  by  communicating  to 
the  nervous  system  more  or  less 
powerful  sensations,  and  producing 
effects  analogous,  if  not  identical 
with  those  of  lightning. 

ELECTCRI'CUS. — Latin.  Electric.  Pos. 
sessing  electricity. 

ELEVATOR.-Applied  to  muscles  whose 
function  is  to  raise  certain  parts. 

ELOPS. — Specific  name  of  a  fish. 

ENCEPH'ALON. — En-kef'-a-lon.  From 
the  Greek,  en,  in,  and  kephale,  head. 
The  contents  of  the  cranium  :  the 
brain  and  spinal  marrow  are  gene- 
rally included  in  this  term. 

ENCRASICIIO'LUS.  —  En-cra-si-ko'-lus. 
Specific  name  of  the  anchovy. 

ENGRAU'LIS. — Generic  name  of  the 
anchovy. 

EPERLA'NUS. — Systematic  name  of  the 
smelt. 

EPIDER'MIC. — Belonging  or  relating 
to  the  epidermis. 


FASCIC'ULUS. — Latin.    A  little  bundle. 
FE'MUR. — Latin.    The  thigh  bone. 
FIBRO-CARTILA'GINOUS  — Of  the  nature 

of  fibrous  tissue  and  cartilage. 
FIBULA. — The   name   of    the     long, 

slender  bone,  situate  at   the    outer 

part  of  the  leg. 
FIL'AMENT. — From   the    Latin,  fila- 

inentum,  which  is  the   diminutive 

ofjilum,  a  thread.     A  very   small 

fibre. 
FI'LIFORM. — From  the  Latin,./i/u/n,  a 

thread,   and   forma,    form,   shape. 

Thread-like. 
FIN.— The  limb  of  a  fish   by   aid   of 

which  it  balances  itself,  and  directs 

its  course. 
FIN-RAYS  — The  rays  or  spfhes  which 

serve  to  sustain  and  spread  the  fins. 
FJXIS.  —  Latin.       (Ablative   plural.) 

Fixed. 
FLESUS. — The  specific  name  of  the 

Flounder. 
FLUVIATI'LE. — Belonging  or  relating 

to  a  river. 
FLUVIATI'LIS.— Latin.    Fluviatile. 


136     HERPETOLOGY  AND  ICHTHYOLOGY:— GLOSSARY. 


FORMATION. — Any  group  of  rocks,  or 
mineral  substances,  of  similar  char 
acter  and  age,  is  termed  a  forma- 
tion in  geology. 

FOSSA. — Latin.  From  fodio,  I  dig. 
A  cavity  of  greater  or  less  depth, 
the  entrance  (o  which  is  always 
larger  than  the  base  or  bottom. 

FOSSJE, — Latin.  Plural  of  fossa.  The 
nasal  fossa,  are  two  large,  irregu- 
lar cavities,  situate  between  the 
orbits  below  the  cranium,  and  be- 
hind the  nose.  The  nostrils.  The 
temporal  fossa,  are  the  depressions 
of  the  temples  on  the  sides  of  the 
cranium,  towards  its  anterior  upper 
part. 

FOSSF.TTE'.  —  Fop-sett.  French.  A 
little  fossa;  a  pit,  a  dimple. 

FOSSIL. — An  organised    body,   found 
buried  in  the   layers  or    strata   of 
the  earth,  from  a  date,   the  anti- 
quity of  which    we   can    fo  m  no 
certain  estimate  ;  most  fossils   ap-  5 
pear   to   belong    to   periods    even 
anterior  to   the   existence    of   the  | 
human  race. 

FRA'GILIS. — Latin.  Fragile;  easily 
broken. 

FUSIFORM.  From  the  Latin,  fusus,  a 
spindle,  and  forma,  shape.  Spindle 
shaped. 

GADO'IDES. — From  the  Greek,  gadus,  I 
a  certain  fish,   and    eidos,   resem- 
blance.     Systematic   name   of    a  j 
family  of  fishes. 

GADUS. — Generic  name  of  the  codfish.  [ 

GANGE'TICA. — Latin.  Belonging  or 
relating  to  the  Ganges. 

GASTROBRANCHUS. —  Gas-tro-brank-us. 
From  the  Greek,  gastcr,  belly,  and  \ 
bragchia,  gills.  Systematic  name 
of  a  genus  of  cartilaginous  fishes ; 
because  the  openings  of  their  gills 
are  situate  under  the  belly. 

GECKO. — rfame  given  to  a  species  of 
saurian  of  India,  in  imitation  of 
its  cry. 

GECKOTIDA.  —  From  gecko,  and  the 
Greek  eidos,  resemblance.  Syste- 
matic name  of  a  family  of  saurians. 

GECKOTIAN. — Applied  to  animals  of 
the  family  of  geckotida. 


GKLATI'NOUS — Partaking  of  the  nature 
of  gelatine  or  jelly. 

GENUS. —  Latin.  A  kindred,  breed, 
race,  stock,  lineage,  or  family. 

GE'NEKA. — Latin.     Plural  of  genus. 

GENE'HIC — Belonging  or  relating  to 
genus. 

GEOLOGY. — From  the  Greek,  ge,  the 
earth,  and  logos,  discourse.  The 
study  or  description  of  the  btructure 
of  the  earth,  and  the  changes  which 
have  taken  place  in  it. 

GLADIUS. — Latin.  A  sword.  Syste- 
matic name  of  a  sword-fish. 

GLAND. — From  the  Latin,  glans,  (in 
the  genitive,  glandis,}  an  acorn.  A 
simple,  soft,  friable,  spongy  part  of 
the  body,  which  bears  some  resem- 
blance to  nn  acorn.  Applied  to 
those  softish,  granular  organs,  com- 
posed of  numerous  vessels,  nerves, 
and  a  peculiar  structure,  which 
form  pr  culiar  secretions. 

GLAND'ULAR. — Composed  of  glands; 
resembling  a  gland. 

GOBIO. — Generic  name  of  the  Gud- 
geon. 

GR.SCA. — Latin      Greek  ;  Grecian. 

GYMNODONTEs.-Jim-no-don-tes.  From 
the  Greek,  gumnos,  naked,  and 
odous,  (in  the  genitive  odontos,) 
tooth.  Systematic  name  of  a 
family  of  fishes. 

GYMNOTUS. — Jim-no-tus.  Latin.  The 
generic  name  of  the  electric  eel. 

GYMNOTJ. — Latin.  Plural  of  Gym- 
notus. 

HAJE. — Ha-jee.  Specific  name  of  a 
coluber. 

HAR'ENGUS. — Generic  name  of  the 
herring. 

HE' LENA. — Specific  name  of  a  kind  of 
eel. 

HEPTA'TREMUS.  —  From  the  Greek, 
epta,  seven,  and  trema,  a  hole  or 
perforation.  Generic  name  of  cer- 
tain fishes  of  the  order  of  cyclos- 
tomi. 

HERBIVOROUS.  —  From  the  Latin, 
herba,  grass,  herb,  and  voro,  I  eat. 
Grass-eating,  herb-eating.  Applied 
to  animals  which  feed  on  grass  or 
plants. 


HERPETOLOGY  AND  ICHTHYOLOGY:— GLOSSARY.      137 


HERPE'TOLOGY. —  From    the    Greek,  ICHTHYO'LOGIST. — Ik-the-o-lo-jist. — 


erpeton,  a  creeping  thing,  a  reptile, 
and  logos,  a  discourse.  A  treatise 
on  reptiles. 

HEXA'GONAL. — From  the  Greek,  ex, 
six,  and  gonia,  angle.  Having  six 
sides  or  angles. 

HI^ER'NATE. — From  the  Latin,  hiber- 
nare,  to  winter,  to  be  in  winter 
quarters.  Animals  that  retire  and 
sleep  throughout  the  winter  are 
said  to  hibernate. 

HIBER'NATION. — The  act  of  hiberna- 
ting. Being  in  winter  quarters. 

Hipro'cAMFos.  —  From  the  Greek, 
ippos,  a  horse,  and  karnpe,  crooked, 
ness.  Systematic  name  of  the 
sea-horse. 

HIPPO'GLOSSUS.  —  From  the  Greek, 
ippos,  a  horse,  and  glossa,  tongue. 
Systematic  name  of  the  holibut. 

HU'MERAL  CINCTURE.  —  A  chain  of 
bones,  forming  a  sort  of  belt, 
which  sustains  the  pectoral  fin, 
(anterior  extremity)  of  fishes. 

HU'MERUS. — The  bone  of  the  arm, 
which  is  situate  between  the 
shoulder  joint  and  elbow. 

Huso. — Specific  name  of  a  sturgeon- 

HYDRUS. — Latin.     A  water-snake. 

HYLA. — From  the  Greek,  ule,  a  wood, 
trees.  Systematic  name  of  the  tree 
frog. 

HY'OID. — From  the  Greek,  u,  am 
eidos,  resemblance.  Resembling 
the  shape  or  form  of  the  letter  U 
The  os  hyoides,  the  hyoid  bone,  is 
a  very  moveable  bony  arch,  placec 
horizontally  in  the  substance  o 
the  soft  parts  of  the  neck,  at  the 
root  of  the  tongue.  It  does  not 
articulate  with  any  other  bone  of > 


From  the  Greek,  ichthust  a  fish, 
and  logos,  a  discourse.  One  skilled 
in  ichthyology. 

ICHTHYO'LOGY. — Ik-the-o'l-o-je.  From 
the  Greek,  ichthus,  a  fish,  and 
logos,  a  discourse.  A  history  of 
fishes. 

ICHTHYO'SAURUS.  —  Ik-the-o'-saw-rus. 
From  the  Greek,  ichthus,  a  fish, 
and  saura,  lizard.  Fish -lizard. 
Systematic  name  of  a  kind  of 
fossil. 

IcHTHYo'coLLA.-Ik-the-o'-colla.  From 
the  Greek,  ichthus,  a  fish,  and  kollu, 
glue.  Fish  glue.  A  kind  of  glue 
prepared  from  fishes. 

I'GUANA. — Name  of  a  kind  of  saurian. 

I'GUANIAN. — Applied  to  saurians  of 
which  the  type  is  the  Iguana. 

I'GUANIDA. — Formed  from  the  aborigi- 
nal name,  iguana,  and  the  Greek 
eidos,  resemblance.  Systematic 
name  of  a  family  of  saurians. 

ILLY'RICA. — Latin.  Illyrian ;  belong- 
ing or  relating  to  Illyria. 

IMB'RICATE. — Laid  one  over  the  other 
like  tiles  or  shingles. 

INCI'SOR. — From  the  Latin,  incido,  I 
cut.  The  teeth  which  occupy  ttie 
anterior  part  of  the  upper  and 
lower  jaws,  are  called  incisors,  or 
incisor  teeth,  because  they  are 
used  for  cutting  the  food  in  the 
manner  of  cutting  instruments. 

INTEGUMENT. — From  the  Latin  tegere, 
to  cover.  The  skin.  The  cover- 
ing  of  the  body. 

INTER-MAXILLARY. — From  the  Latin, 
inter,  between,  and  maxilla,  the 
jaw.  Bones  situate  at  the  anterior 
part  of  the  upper  jaw  between  its 
two  sides. 


the   skeleton,   and    is    only    con- !  INTERSPINAL — The  interspinal  bones 


nected  to  it  through  the  medium 
of  muscles  and  ligaments.  The 
general  characters  of  the  hyoid 
bone,  are  the  same  in  all  verte- 
brate animals.  In  fishes,  its  bran- 
ches are  composed  of  several 
pieces,  and  give  support  to  the 
branchiostegous  rays, 
HroiDEs. — See  hyoid. 

n* 


form  a  series  of  strong,  dagger- 
like  bones,  deeply  implanted  in  the 
flesh  along  the  middle  line  of  the 
body  of  fishes',  between  the  two 
great,  masses  of  lateral  muscles  : 
their  points  generally  penetrate 
to  a  little  distance  between  the 
spinous  processes  of  the  vertebrae, 
to  which  they  are  connected  Hv  - 


138      HERPETOLOGY  AND  ICHTHYOLOGY:— GLOSSARY. 


ligamentous  attachment;  whilst  to 
their  opposite  extremity,  which 
may  be  compared  to  the  hilt  of 
the  dagger,  the  corresponding  fin- 
rays  are  affixed  by  a  beautilul 
articulation.  Eacli  interspinous 
bone  consists  of  two  pieces  united 
by  a  suture;  one  portion  represen- 
ting the  blade,  the  other  the  handle 
of  the  dagger,  to  which  we  have 
compared  it. 

INVERTEBRATE,  —  Without  vertebrae  ; 
wanting  the  spinal  column. 

/'jus. — Th-dt  part  of  the  eye  in  which 
the  pupil  is  situate ;  a  vertical  par- 
tition between  the  anterior  and 
poslerior  chambers  of  the  eye. 

I'RJDES. — Plural  of  iris. 

IRRITABILITY. — From  the  Latin  irritn, 
I  provoke.  A  power,  possessed  by 
all  living  organized  bodies,  of  be- 
ing acted  upon  by  certain  stimu- 
lants, and  of  moving  responsive  to 
or  consequently  to  such  stimula- 
tion. It  is  the  ultimate  vital 
property. 

I'SOLATEP. — From  the  Italian,  isola, 
'an  island;  (because  one  who  is 
isolated,  resembles  an  island  en- 
tirely surrounded  by  water.)  Sepa- 
rated, alone,  single. 

JACULA'TOR. — Latin.  A  shooter,  a 
darter,  a  dart-flinger.  Specific 
name  of  a  shooting-fish. 

LA'BIAL. —  From  the  Latin,  lalium, 
lip.  Belonging  or  relating  to 
lips. 

LA  BRAX. — Greek.  Specific  name  of 
a  kind  of  Perch. 

LABYRTNTHI'FORM. —  From  the  Greek, 
laliurinthos,  a  labyrinth,  and  the 
Latin, /ormo,  form,  shape.  Syste- 
matic name  of  a  family  of  fishes. 

LACE'RTA. — Latin.     A  lizard. 

LACE'RTIAN. — Applied  to  animals  re- 
sembling lizards. 

LACERTINIDA.  —  From  the  Latin, 
locerta,  a  lizard,  and  the  Greek, 
eidos,  resemblance.  Systematic 
name  of  a  family  of  saurians. 

LACH'RYMAL. — lak'-re-mal.  From  the 
Latin,  Lachryma,  a  tear.  Belong- 
ing or  relating  to-tears. 


LAMELLA. — Latin.  A  little  thin  plate, 
or  piece. 

LAMELLAE. — Latin.    Plural  of  lamella. 

LANCEOLATUS. — Latin.  Lance-shaped. 

LARVA. — Latin.  A  mask.  An  insect 
after  it  has  left  the  egg,  and  before 
it  assumes  the  form  of  a  chrysalis, 
is  called  a  larva,  because  in  this 
state  it  is,  as  it  were,  masked. 

LARVAE. — Latin.     Plural  of  larva. 

LARYNX. — From  the  Greek,  larugx, 
a  whistle.  The  apparatus  of  vo  ce. 

LEuciVcus. — Latin.  Generic  name 
of  the  roach. 

LIBERIS. — Latin.  (  Ablative  plural.) 
Free. 

LIGAMENT. —  From  the  Latin,  li^are, 
to  tie.  A  name  given  to  fibrous 
structures  which  serve  to  unite 
bones,  and  form  articulations. 

LIMAXDA. — From  the  Latin,  lima,  a 
file.  Specific  name  of  a  fish. 

LornoBRAiNCHj'AN. —  lo-fo-brank'-c-an. 
From  the  Greek,  lophos,  a  tuft,  or 
top-knot,  and  biagcfna,  gills.  Ap- 
plied to  fishes  of  the  order  of 
Lophobranchii. 

LOPHOBRANCH'II.  —  lo-pho  brank'-e-i. 
Latin.  Plural  of  Lophobranchus. 
Same  derivation  as  the  last.  Sys- 
tematic name  of  an  order  of  fishes. 

LORICATE. — Latin,  (plural.)  Loricate. 
Armed  with  a  coat  of  mail ;  clad 
in  armour. 

LOTA. — Systematic  name  of  the  Ling. 

LOZKNGE-SHAPE.— Shaped  like  a  lozenge, 
which  is  a  figure  with  four  equal 
sides,  forming  two  acute  and  two 
obtuse  angles,  thus;  <> 

Lu'BRicATE. — To  make  smooth  or 
slippery. 

Lu'cius. — Latin.     A  pike. 

MALACOPTKRY'GIAN. —  From  the  Greek, 
malac/ios, soft,  and  pteruz,  fin.  Soft- 
fin.  Applied  to  fishes  that  have  no 
bony  fin  rays. 

MALACOPTERYGII. — Latin.  Plural  of 
malacopterygius.  Same  derivation 
as  the  last.  Systematic  name  of 
an  order  of  fishes. 

MALAPTE'RURI.  —  Latin.  Plural  of 
malapterurus.  Formed  from  mala, 
much,  pteron,  fin,  and  red,  I  fall 


HERPETOLOGY  AND  ICHTHYOLOGY:— GLOSSARY.      139 


off.  Imperfect  fins.  Generic  name 
of  a  fish  of  the  family  of  siluroides. 

MA'MMA. — Latin.  The  breast,  pap, 
or  teat. 

MA'MMA. — Latin.    Plural  of  mamma. 

MA'MMAL. — Any  animal  having  teats 
for  suckling  its  young,  is  called  a 
mammal. 

MAMMA'LIA.— From  the  Latin  mamma, 
breast.  Systematic  name  of  the 
class  of  animals  that  suckle  their 
young. 

MARI'NUS. — Latin.  Marine  ;  belong- 
ing or  relating  to  the  sea. 

MAS'TICATORY.  —  From  the  Greek, 
mastichad,  I  chew.  Relating  to 
mastication,  or  the  act  of  chewing 
the  food. 

MASTO'ID. — From  the  Greek,  mastos, 
a  nipple,  and  e.idos,  resemblance. 
A  process  or  projection  of  the  tem- 
poral bone,  (behind  the  ear,)  is  so 
called,  on  account  of  its  shape. 

MAX'ILLARY. — From  the  Latin,  max- 
illa, a  jaw.  Belonging  or  relating 

F    to  the  jaws. 

MAX'IMUS. — Latin.    Greatest,  largest. 

MEMBRANE. — A  name  given  to  dif- 
ferent thin  organs,  representing 
species  of  supple,  more  or  less 
elastic,  webs. 

MEM'BRANOUS. — Belonging  to,  or  par- 
taking of  the  nature  of  a  mem- 
brane. 

MENIDES. — From  the  Latin,  mana,  or 
mena,  a  kind  of  fish.  Systematic 
name  of  a  family  of  fishes. 

MENOBRANCH'US.  —  me-no-brank'-us. 
From  the  Greek,  menos,  strength, 
and  bragchia,  gills.  Systematic 
name  of  a  genus  of  batrachians. 

MENOPOMA. — Generic  name  of  a  kind 
of  batrachian. 

MERLANGUS. — Latin.     Formed  from 


MOL'LUSCA. — From  the  Latin,  mollis, 
soft.  Systematic  name  of  a  class 
of  animals  without  vertebrae. 

MOLLUSK. — Any  animal  of  the  class 
of  mollusca. 

MONITOR'. — Latin.  Generic  name  of 
a  kind  of  saurian. 

MORR.HUA. — Systematic  name  of  the 
cod-fish. 

MOSASAURUS. — Systematic  name  of  a 
fossil  saurian. 

MOTIVE. — From  the  Latin,  moveo,  I 
move.  That  which  moves  or  causes 
motion. 

MUCOS'ITY. — A  fluid  which  resembles 
mucus,  or  contains  a  certain  quan- 
tity of  it. 

Mu'cous — Belonging  or  relating  to 
mucus. 

Mu'cus. — Animal  mucilage.  A  pecu- 
liar fluid  secreted  by  mucous  mem- 
branes. 

MUGIL. — Latin.    A  mullet. 

MUGILOI'DES. — From  the  Latin  mugil, 
a  mullet,  and  eidos,  resemblance. 
Systematic  name  of  a  family  of 
fishes. 

MUJLLOI'DKS. — From  the  Latin,  mul- 
lus,  a  barbel,  a  red-mullet,  and 
eidos,  resemblance.  Systematic 
name  of  a  family  of  fishes. 

MIJLLUS. — Latin.  A  barbel,  a  red- 
mullet. 

MUR.BNA. — Latin.  From  the  Greek, 
muraina,  a  kind  of  fish  resemb- 
ling an  eel.  Systematic  name  of 
eels. 

MuR^'N^.~Latin.  Plural  of  muraena. 

MYXINE. — From  the  Greek,  muxinos, 
which  is  formed  from  muzo,  I  suck. 
Systematic  name  of  the  hag-fish. 

NACREOUS.— From  the  Spanish nacar, 


mother  of  pearl, 
mother  of  pearl. 


Of  the  nature  of 


the  French,    merlan,    a    whiting.    NAJA — Specific  name  of  a  serpent. 


Systematic  name  of  the  whiting.     $  NASAL. — Belonging  or  relating  to  the 
MERLUC'CIUS. — Specific  name  of  the    ^  nose.    NasaUbssse,  (See  FOSSAE.) 

hake. 
METAMOR'PHOSIS. — From   the  Greek, 

meta,    after,    and    morphe,    form. 

Transformation.     Applied   to   the 

organic  changes  which  take  place 


in  certain  animals. 


NAUCRA'TES.— From  the  Greek,  naus, 
a  vessel,  and  krateo,  I  have  power 
over.  Systematic  name  of  certain 
fishes. 

NILOTICA. — Latin.  Belonging  or  re- 
lating to  the  Nile. 


140      HERPETOLOGY  AND  ICHTHYOLOGY:— GLOSSARY. 


.. — Latin.    Naked. 
OCELLATE. — From  the  Latin,   ocuZus, 
an  eye.     Having   marks   resemb- 
ling an  eye. 

OZsopiiAGUS.— Es-o'-fa-gus.  From  the 
Greek,  oiso,  I  carry,  and  phagein, 
to  eat.  The  gullet.  The  membra- 
nous canal  which  conveys  food 
from  the  mouth  to  the  stomach 

OLFAC'TORY. — From  the  Latin,  olfac- 
tus,  the  >mell.  Belonging  or  rela- 
ting to  smell. 

OMNISCIENT. — From  the  Latin,  omnis, 
all,  every  thing,  and  scio,  I  know 
All-knowing. 

OPER'CULA. — Latin.  Plural  of  oper 
culum. 

OPER'CULAR.— Belonging  or  relating 
to  operculum. 

OPER'CULUM.  —  Latin.  A  cover,  a 
lid.  A  bony  plate,  which,  in  a 
great  m  sny  fishes,  covers  the  gills. 
The  gill-cover.  The  little  cover, 
or  kind  of  door,  which  closes  the 
entrance,  or  mouth  of  a  shell. 

OPHI'DIA. — From  the  Greek,  ophis, 
serpent.  Systematic  name  of  an 
order  of  reptiles. 

OPHIDIAN. — Any  reptile  of  the  order 
of  ophidia. 

ORBIT.  —  From  the  Latin,  orbis,  a 
circle.  The  circular  cavities  which 
lodge  the  organs  of  vision,  are 
called  orbits. 

OR'BITAL. — Belonging  or  relating  to 
the  orbits. 

ORGAN. — From  the  Greek,  organon, 
an  instrument.  Part  of  an  orga- 
nised being,  destined  to  exercise 
some  particular  function ;  for  ex- 
ample, the  ears  are  the  organs  of 
hearing,  the  muscles  are  the  organs 
of  motion,  &c. 

ORGA'NIC. — Relating  to  an  organ. 

ORGANISED. — Composed  of  organs; 
having  a  mode  of  structure. 

ORGANIZATION. — The  mode,  or  man- 
ner of  structure  of  an  organised 
being. 

Os. — Latin.     Bone. 

OSME'RUS.  —  Generic  name  of  the 
smelt. 


OS'SEOUS. — From  the  Latin,  os,  bone. 

Bony,  composed  of  bone. 
OS'SIPIED — Applied  to  that  which  has 

become  bone. 

OS'SIFICATION. — From  the  Latin,  oa, 
bone,  and  facere,  to  make.  The 
formation  of  bone.  The  process 
by  which  bone  is  formed. 

OSTRACION. — From  the  Greek,  ostra- 
kon,  a  shell,  a  scale  Generic  name 
of  the  trunk-fish. 

OVI'PAROUS. — From  the  Latin,  ovum, 
an  egg,  and  parere,  lo  bring  forth. 
Animals  that  multiply  by  means  of 
eggs,  are  oviparous. 

OVO-VIVI'PAROUS.  —  From  the  Latin, 
ovum,  egg,  vivus,  alive,  and  parere, 
to  bring  forth.  Animals  that  multi- 
ply by  means  of  eggs,  which  are 
hatched  before  they  are  laid. 

OX'YGEN. — ox'-e-jin.  From  the  Greek 
oxus,  acid,  sour,  and  gennao,  I 
engender.  The  generator  of  acid, 
as  it  was  believed  to  be  exclu- 
sively when  this  name  was  given 
to  it.  A  gas  which  constitutes 
about  one  fifth  of  our  atmosphere, 
which  is  necessary  to  the  respira- 
'  tion  of  animals,  and  consequently, 
indispensable  to  animal  life.  But 
it  cannot  be  breathed  alone  for  any 
considerable  time  with  impunity, 
requiring  to  be  mixed  with  about 
four  parts  of  nitrogen,  (azote)  as 
is  the  case  in  our  atmosphere  to 
render  it  suitable  for  respiration. 

PALATINE. — Relating  to  the  palate. 

PAL'MATE. — From  the  Latin,  palma, 
the  pa!m.  Having  the  form  of  the 
palm,  from  the  toes  or  fingers  be- 
ing united  by  a  membrane. 

PAN'CREAS. — From  the  Greek,  pan, 
all,  and  kreas,  flesh.  All  fleshy. 
A  gland  deeply  sealed  in  the  abdo- 
men, which  resembles  the  salivary 
gland  in  its  structure,  and  has  been 
called  the  abdominal  salivary  gland. 

PAPI'LLA. — Latin.  A  nipple.  A  name 
given  to  small  eminences,  which 
appear  to  be  formed  by  the  ulti- 
mate expansion  of  the  vessels  and 
nerves. 

PAPILLA. — Latin.    Plural  of  papilla. 


HERPETOLOGY  AND  ICHTHYOLOGY:— GLOSSARY.      141 


PARACHUTE. — From  the  Greek,  para 
against,  and  the  French  chute 
fall*  A  machine  somewhat  in  the 
form  of  the  top  of  an  umbrella 
used  to  moderate  the  descent  o 
those  who  ascend  in  balloons,  ant 
guarantee  them  against  the  effect 
of  a  sudden  fall. 

PARI'ETKS.— Fiom  the  Latin,  pnries 
a  wall.  A  name  given  to  part 
which  form  the  inclosure  —  the 
limits  of  different  cavities  of  the 
body. 

PAROTID. — From   the    Greek,    para 
about,  and  ows,  the  ear.    A  large 
salivary   gland   situated   near  th 
ear  is  so  called. 

PECTEN. — Latin.  A  comb.  A  fok 
or  process  of  the  retina,  found  in 
some  animals,  is  so  called. 

PECTENIFORM.  —  From  the  Latin, 
pecten,  a  comb,  and  forma,  form, 
shape.  Comb-t-haped  ;  like  a  comb. 

PECTINATE. — Formed  like  a  comb  ; 
having  teeth  like  a  comb. 

PEC'TORAL.— From  the  Latin,  pecltts, 
(in  the  genitive,  pectoris,')  the  chest, 
the  breast.  Belonging  or  relating 
to  the  chest. 

f      From  the  Latin,  pes, 

PED'ICLE.     J   (in  the  genitive,  pedis,) 

PED'UNCLE.  ]  foot.    A  little  foot ;  a 
^  stem. 

PELA'MYS.  —  Specific  name  of  the 
Bonita. 

PELVIS. — The  bony  structure  at  the', 
lower  part  of  the  trunk. 

PERCA. — Latin,     A  Perch. 

PERCOIDES. — From  the  Latin,  perca,\ 
perch,    and     eidos,     resemblance. 
Systematic   name  of  a   family    of 
fishes. 

PERITONEUM. — From  the  Greek,  peri, 
around,  and  teino,  I  stretch.  A 
serous  membrane  which  lines  the 
abdominal  cavity,  and  covers, 
entirely,  or  in  part,  all  the  organs 
contained  in  it. 

PETROMYZON. — From  the  Greek  petra, 
rock,  and  muzo,  I  suck.  Rock- 
sucker.  Systematic  name  of  the 
lampreys. 


PHARYNGE'AL. —  Belonging  or  relating 
to  the  pharynx. 

PHARYNGE'AN.  —  Applied  to  cestain 
fishes. 

PHARYNX. — From  the  Greek  pTiarugx, 
the  pharynx.  The  swallow.  The 
superior  opening  of  the  ce-ophagus 

PHYsio'LOGY.-From  the  Greek,  phnsis, 
nature,  and  logos,  a  discourse.  The 
science  which  treats  of  the  func- 
tions of  animals  or  vegetables. 

PITU'ITARY. —  From  the  Latin,  pituita, 
phlegm.  The  lining  membrane  of 
the  nose  is  called  the  pituitary 
membrane. 

PISCIFORMIS. — Latin.  Fish  -  shaped ; 
formed  like  a  fish. 

PLAS'TRUM. — The  inferior  shell  of  a 
tortoise. 

PLATES'SA. — From  the  Greek,  platus, 
broad,  flat.  Systematic  name  of  the 
plaice. 

PLATURUS.— Generic  name  of  certain 
ophidians. 

PLECTO'GNATHI.  —  From  the  Greek, 
plektos,  twined,  joined  together, 
and  gnathos,  jaw,  cheek.  Syste- 
matic name  of  an  order  of  fishes. 

PLESIOSAURUS.  —  From  the  Gree1--, 
pleisos,  most,  and  saura,  a  lizard. 
The  systematic  name  of  a  fossil 
saurian. 

PLEURONKCTES. —  From  the  Greek, 
pleura,  the  side,  and  nectes,  fin. 
Systematic  name  of  a  family  of 
fishes. 

PNEUMOGASTRIC.  —  From  the  Greek, 
pneumon,  the  lung,  and  paster,  the 
stomach.  The  n  line  of  a  nerve 
which  is  distributed  chiefly  to  the 
organs  contained  in  the  chest  and 
abdomen. 

POLYO'DON. — From  the  Greek,  polus, 
many,  and  odous,  (in  the  genitive, 
odontos,)  tooth.  Name  of  a  kind 
of  sturgeon. 

PORTA — Latin.     A  gate. 

POLYGO'NAL. — From  the  GreeJr,  polus, 
many,  and  gona,  angle.  Having 
many  sides  and  many  angles. 

PRK'HENSION. — From  the  Latin,  pre- 
hendcre,  to  lay  hold  of.  The  pre- 
hension of  aliments  consists  in 


142   HERPETOLOGY  AND  ICHTHYOLOGY  .—GLOSSARY. 


laying  hold  of,  and  conveying  food 
to  the  mouth. 

PRE-OPERCULUM.— A  part  of  the  gill- 
cover. 

PRISTIS. — Latin.  Generic  name  of 
the  saw-fish. 

PROCESS. — From  the  Latin,  procedo, 
1  go  before.  An  eminence  of  bone; 
a  bony  projection. 

PRO'TKUS. — From  the  Greek,  protos, 
first.  Name  of  a  particular  reptile. 

PROTRA'CTILE. — Susceptible  of  being 
extended  or  stretched  out. 

PTERODA'CTYLUS. — From  the  Greek, 
pteron,  wing,  and  daktulost  finger. 
Name  of  a  fossil. 

PTER'VGOID. — ter'-e-goid.  From  the 
Greek,  pterux,  wing,  and  eidos, 
resemblance.  Name  of  a  bone 
which  is  connected  to  the  palate 
bones. 

PU'LMONARY. — Belonging  or  relating 
to  the  lungs. 

PUPIL.  —  The  aperture  of  the  iris, 
through  which  the  rays  of  light 
pass,  that  have  to  paint  the  image 
of  an  object  on  the  retina. 

PYGM.EUS.  —  Latin.  Small,  little, 
dwarfish,  pi^my. 

PYLO'RUS. — From  the  Greek,  pule, 
gate,  and  ouros,  a  guardian.  The 
right  orifice  of  the  stomach. 

PYTHON  — From  the  Greek,  puthon, 
a  serpent.  Generic  name  of  cer- 
tain ophidians. 

QUADRANGULAR.  —  From  the  Latin, 
quatuor,  four,  and  angulus,  angle. 
Having  four  angles  or  sides. 

RADIUS. — Latin.  A  spoke.  One  of 
the  bones  of  the  fore-arm,  so  called 
from  its  shape. 

RAIA. — ry-a.     Latin.     A  ray-fish. 

RANA. — Latin.     A  frog. 

REG'IMEN. — From  the  Latin,  regere, 
to  govern.  The  rational  and  metho- 
dical use  of  food,  and  every  thing 
essential  to  life ;  both  in  a  state  of 
health  and  disease.  It  is  often  re- 
stricted in  its  meaning  to  diet, 

REMO'RA. — Latin.  A  hindrance.  The 
name  of  a  fish. 

REPTI'LE. — From  the  Latin,  repere, 
to  crawl.  An  animal  that  crawls, 


that  drags  itself  along  on  its  belly 
like  serpents  and  worms,  Also 
applied  to  animals  that  have  legs 
so  short  that  they  seem  to  crawl. 

RESP'IRATION. — From  the  Latin,  res- 
piro,  I  take  breath.  A  function 
proper  to  animals,  the  object  of 
which  is  to  place  the  materials  of 
the  blood  in  contact  with  atmos- 
pheric air,  in  order  that  it  may 
acquire  the  vivifying  qualities  that 
belong  to  arterial  blood.  Aquatic 
animals  find  sufficient  air  for  their 
respiration,  mixed  with,  or  dissolved 
in  the  water. 

RET'INA.— From  the  Latin,  rete,  a 
net.  The  essential  organ  of  vision, 
situated  within  the  eye-ball :  on  it 
the  images  of  objects  are  impressed. 

RETRA'CTILE. — Susceptible  of  being 
drawn  back. 

RHOMBOIDAL. — Lozenge-shaped. 

SACRUM. — Latin.  Sacred.  The  bone 
which  forms  the  posterior  part  of 
the  pelvis,  and  is  a  continuation  of 
the  vertebral  column. 

SAI.AR. — Specific  name  of  the  salmon. 

SALI'VA. — Spittle. 

SALI'VARY. — Belonging  or  relating  to 
saliva. 

SALMO. — Latin.     A  salmon. 

SALMONI'DES. — Systematic  name  of  a 
family  of  fishes. 

SARDINA. — Latin.    A  sardine. 

SARGUS. — Latin.    Name  of  a  fish. 

SAU'RIA. — From  the  Greek,  sourer,  a 
lizard.  Systematic  name  of  an 
order  of  reptiles. 

SAURIAN. — Any  reptile  of  the  order 
of  sauria. 

SAUVEGARDE. — French.  Name  of  a 
saurian. 

SCAPULA.— The  shoulder-blade. 

SCHIST. — From  the  Greek,  schizcin, 
to  divide.  A  sort  of  stone  which 
separates  into  leaves  or  plates  like 
slate,  but  not  to  the  same  extent. 
A  generic  name  given  by  geolo- 
gists to  all  minerals  which  split  or 
divide  into  very  thin  plates. 

SCIENOFDES. — Systematic  name  of  a 
family  of  fishes. 


HERPETOLOGY  AND  ICHTHYOLOGY:— GLOSSARY.      143 


r     From  the  Greek, skig- 

SCINCOIDKA.     kos,  a  sort  of  crocodile, 
<  and  eidos,  resemblance. 

SCINCOJDES.  1  Systematic  name  of   a 
(^family  of  saurians. 

SCINQUE. — French.  A  kind  of  saurian. 

ScLERODERMi.-skler-ro-dur-mi.  Latin. 
Plural  of  sclerodermus.  From  the 
Greek,  skleros^  hard,  and  dp.rma, 
skin.  Hard-skinned.  Systematic 
name  of  a  family  of  fishes. 

SCLEROPS.  —  skle-rops.  From  tlie 
Greek,  skleros,  hard,  and  ops,  eye. 
Specific  name  of  a  kind  of  croco- 
dile. 

SCOMBER. — Latin.     A  mackerel. 

SCOMBER OI'DES.  —  From  the  Greek, 
skombros,  mackerel,  and  eidos,  re- 
semblance. Systematic  name  of  a 
family  of  fishes. 

SCYLLIUM  — From  the  Greek,  skullo, 
1  tear  in  pieces.  Systematic  name 
of  the  shark. 

SKCRE'TION, — From  the  Latin,  secer 
nere,  to  separate.  The  organic 
functions  of  the  several  glands,  by 
which  they  separate  from  the  blood 
the  materials  which  they  respec- 
tively demand  for  their  several 
purposes :  each  organ  according 
to  its  peculiar  structure,  differs 
from  the  rest,  and  hence  we  have 
the  formation  of  the  different  fluids, 
as  bile,  saliva,  milk,  &c.  &c.  The 
fluids  thus  elaborated,  or  separated 
from  the  blood  are  also  termed 
secretions. 

SELACHII.  —  se-lak-e-i.  Plural  of 
eelachus.  In  the  Greek,  selachos. 
An  order  of  cartilaginous  fishes. 

SERPENTIA. — Systematic  name  of  a 
family  of  ophidians. 

SERPENTINA. — Latin.  Belonging  or 
relating  to  a  serpent. 

SERRATED. — From  the  Latin,  serra,  a 
saw.  Notched  or  toothed  like  a 
saw. 

SiLURoiPES.-From  the  Greek,  silouros, 
name  of  a  particular  fish,  and  eidos, 
resemblance.  Systematic  name  of 
a  family  of  fishes. 

SILURI. — Latin.     Plural  of  silurus* 

SILURUS. — Latin.    Name  of  a  fish. 


SINUS.  —  Any  cavity,  the  interior  of 
which  is  more  expanded  than  the 
entrance ;  in  this  respect,  being 
the  reverse  of  fossa.  Venous  sinus 
is  a  venous  canal  into  which  a 
number  of  vessels  empty. 

SIREN,  or  SYREN. — From  the  Greek, 
seira,  a  chain,  from  the  supposed 
strength  of  its  charms.  A  fabu- 
lous monster.  Name  of  a  kind  of 
batrachian. 

SOLEA. — Latin.     A  sole. 

SPAROIDES. — From  the  Latin,  sparug, 
a  kind  of  fish,  and  the  Greek,  eidos, 
resemblance.  Systematic  name  of 
a  family  of  fishes. 

SPARUS. — Latin.  Name  of  a  kind 
of  fish ;  a  dart. 

SPATULARIA. — Systematic  name  of  a 
kind  of  sturgeon. 

SPECIFIC. — Any  medicinal  substance, 
to  which  is  attributed  the  property 
of  curing  one  disease  rather  than 
any  other.  It  is  doubtful  whether 
any  such  remedy  really  exists. 

SPECIFIC  GRAVITY. — Is  the  weight  of 
any  body,  solid  or  fluid,  compara- 
tively with  the  weight  of  an  equal 
volume  of  distilled  water ;  or,  spe- 
cific gravity  is  the  gravity  or 
weight  of  two  bodies,  solid  or 
fluid,  which  possess  different 
weights  when  of  equal  volume. 

SPHENOID — From  the  Greek,  sphen, 
a  wedge,  and  eidos,  resemblance. 
A  bone,  situate  on  the  middle  line, 
and  at  the  base  of  the  cranium. 
It  articulates  with  all  the  other 
bones  of  the  cranium,  and 
strengthens  their  union,  acting 
very  much  like  the  key-stone  of 
an  arch. 

SPINOUS. — Belonging  or  relating  to  a 
spine. 

SPIRACLE.— From  the  Latin,  spirare, 
to  breathe.  A  breathing  hole  or 
nostril  in  aquatic  animals. 

SPLEEN.— One  of  the  organs  of  the 
abdomen,  the  precise  use  of  which 
is  not  known. 

SQUALIDES. — Systematic  name  of  a 
family  of  fishes. 

SQUALL— Latin.    Plural  of  squalus. 


144     HERPETOLOGY  AND  ICHTHYOLOGY:— GLOSSARY. 


SQUALUS. — Latin.     A  shark. 

SQUAMIPENNES.  —  From  the  Latin, 
squama,  a  scale,  and  penna,  a 
feather.  Systematic  name  of  a 
family  of  fishes. 

STELLIO. — Latin.     A  kind  of  saurian. 

STERNAL. — Belonging  or  relating  to 
the  sternum. 

STERNUM. — The  breast-bone. 

STURIO. — Specific  name  of  the  com- 
mon sturgeon. 

STURIONES, — Systematic  name  of  an 
order  of  fishes. 

STYLET. — Diminutive  of  style.  A 
slender  process  or  needle-like  pro- 
jection of  bone. 

SuBBRACHiATi.-sub-brak-e-a-ti.  Latin. 
Plural  of  subbrachiatus.  From  the 
Latin,  sub,  beneath,  and  brachium, 
arm.  Applied  to  an  order  of  fishes 
that  have  the  ventral  beneath  the 
pectoral  fins,  that  is,  the  arms. 

SUBBRACHIAN.  —  sub-brak-6-an.  Ap- 
plied to  fishes  of  the  order  of  sub- 
brachiati. 

SUBCAUDAL. — From  the  Latin,  sub, 
under,  and  cauda,  tail.  Applied  to 
that  which  is  beneath  the  tail. 

SURMULUS. — Latin.     A  surmullet. 

SUTURE. — From  the  Latin,  suo,  I 
stitch.  A  kind  of  immoveable 
articulation  or  joint,  in  which  the 
bones  unite  by  means  of  serrated 
edges,  which  are,  as  it  were,  dove- 
tailed into  each  other.  The  articu- 
lations of  the  bones  of  the  cranium 
are  of  this  kind. 

TACTILE  SENSIBILITY  — The  sensibility 
which  enables  us  to  perceive  im- 
pressions through  the  means  of  the 
sense  of  touch. 

T.ENIOIDES. — From  the  Latin,/<ema,a 
ribbon,  and  the  Greek,  eidos,  re- 
semblance. Systematic  name  of  a 
family  of  fishes. 

TADPOLE. — From  the  Saxon,  tad,  toad, 
and  pola,  a  young  one.  The  young 
©f  the  batrachians  are  called  tad- 
poles. 

TEN'DINOUS. — Belonging  or  relating 
to  tendon. 

TEN'DON. — From  the  Greek,  teino,  I 
stretch.  Strong,  white,  fibrous 


cords,  which  connect  the  muscles 
to  the  bones  which  they  move. 
The  tendons  may  be  considered  as 
so  many  cords,  for  transmitting 
the  motion  of  the  muscles  to  the 
bones.  They  are  sometimes  vul- 
garly designated  under  the  name 
of  "  leaders." 

TESTUDO. — Latin.     A  tortoise. 

TETRODON. — From  the  Greek,  tetra, 
four,  and  odous,  (in  the  genitive, 
oc/ontos,)  tooth.  Systematic  name 
of  certain  fishes. 

THERMO'METER.  —  From  the  Greek, 
thermos,  heat,  and  metron,  measure. 
An  instrument  for  measuring  the 
different  degrees  of  heat  or  cold, 
by  means  of  the  expansion  and 
contraction  of  the  fluid,  ( com- 
monly mercury,)  contained  in  it. 

THEUTYES. — Systematic  name  of  a 
family  of  fishes. 

THORACIC.—  Belonging  or  relating  to 
the  chest. 

THORAX. — From  the  Greek,  thorax, 
the  chest.  The  cavity  destined  to 
lodge  the  chief  organs  of  respira- 
tion and  circulation,  the  heart  and 
lungs.  The  chest. 

TH YM A LLUS.— Systematic  name  of  the 
graylings. 

THYNNUS — Systematic  name  of  the 
tunny. 

TIBIA.— Latin.  A  flute.  The  largest 
bone  of  the  leg  is  so  called. 

TINCA. — Latin.     A  tench. 

TISSUE. — From  the  Latin,  texere,  to 
weave.  The  interlacement  or  union 
of  many  things  which  form  a  body, 
as  threads  of  flax,  silk,  wool,  &c., 
of  which  cloths  and  stufts  are  made. 
From  analogy,  the  term  is  employed 
in  anatomy,  to  describe  the  sub. 
stances  of  which  the  organs  of  ani- 
mals in  general,  and  of  man  in 
particular,  are  formed,  and  which 
result  from  the  interlacement  of 
fibres,  ft  is  applied  to  different 
kinds  of  organization  of  the  body, 
as, for  example,  the  muscular  tissue, 
osseous  tissue,  meaning  the  struc- 
ture of  which  the  muscles  and 
bones  are  composed. 


HERPETOLOGY  AND  ICHTHYOLOGY:— GLOSSARY.      145 


TORPEDO. — Latin.  Numbness.  Name 
of  a  fish 

TORTRIX. — Generic  name  of  certain 
ophidians. 

TOXOTES. — From  the  Greek,  toxotes, 
an  archer.  Systematic  name  of 
certain  fishes. 

TRACH'EA. — trak-e-a.  From  the  Greek 
trachus,  rough,  and  arteria,  an 
artery,  which  is  formed  from  aer, 
air,  and  terein,  to  keep.  The  canal 
which  conveys  air  to  the  lungs. 
The  wind-pipe. 

TRENCHANT. — Cutting. 

TRIGONOCEPHALI.  —  tri-gon-o-kef-a-li. 
Latin.  Plural  of  trigonocephalus. 

TRI'GONOCKPHALUS. — From  the  Greek, 
treis,  three,  gonia,  angle,  and 
Jcephale,  head.  Triangular  head. 
The  systematic  name  of  a  serpent. 

TRI'LOBED. — From  the  Latin,  tres, 
three,  and  lobus,  lobe.  Formed  of 
three  lobes. 

TRI'TJNYX,— From  the  Greek,  treis, 
three,  and  onux,  nail.  Having 
three  nails.  Generic  name  of  cer- 
tain tortoises. 

TRUNCATE. — Cut  abruptly  or  square 
off;  cut  short 

TRUNK. — The  body  without  including 
the  head  and  extremities. 

TRUTTA. — Specific  name  of  the  trout. 

TUBERCLE. — From  the  Latin,  tuber,  a 
knot.  A  small  knot,  or  projection. 

TUBERCULOUS. — Composed  of,  or  con- 
taining tubercles. 

TYMPANUM. — Latin.  A  drum.  The 
drum  of  the  ear. 

TYPHLOPS.  —  tif-lops.  Greek.  One 
who  is  blind.  Name  of  an  ophidian. 

ULNA. — The  bone  of  the  fore-arm, 
which  forms  the  prominence  of  the 
elbow,  during  the  flexion  of  that 
joint. 

UMBRINA. — Generic  name  of  a  fish. 

URODELA. —  Systematic  name  of  a 
family  of  batrachians. 

VASCULAR.— Supplied  with  vessels. 

VENA. — Latin.     A  vein.     Venaporta, 

a  vein  of  the  liver. 
VENOUS — Relating  to  veins. 
VENTRAL.— Prom   the  Latin,   venter, 
belly.    Belonging  to  the  belly. 
12 


VENTRICLE. — A  name  given  to  various 
parts  by  anatomists. 

VENTRICULAR. — Belonging  to  a  ven- 
tricle ;  of  the  nature  of  a  ventricle. 

VERMIFORM. — From  the  Latin, vermis, 
a  worm,  and/orma,  form.  Worm- 
shaped  :  like  a  worm. 

VERNALIS. — Latin.  Vernal.  Relating 
to  the  spring. 

VERTEBRA. — From  the  Latin,  vertere, 
to  turn.  This  name  has  been 
given  to  each  of  the  bones,  which, 
by  their  union,  form  the  vertebral 
or  spinal  column,  commonly  called 
the  back  bone. 

VERTEBRAE. — The  plural  of  vertebra. 

VERTEBRAL. — Belonging  or  relating 
to  vertebrae. 

VERTEBRATA. — Animals  that  possess 
vertebrae.  Systematic  name  of  the 
first  branch  of  the  animal  kingdom. 

VERTEBRATE.  —Having  vertebrae. 

VERTICILLATE. — From  the  Latin,  ver- 
ticillum,  a  peg.  Arranged  in  a 
circle,  like  the  leaves  of  certain 
flowers  around  a  stem- 

VESTIBULE. — The  first  part  of  the 
second  cavity  of  the  ear  is  so 
called. 

VIPERA. — Latin.    A  viper. 

VIRIDIS. — Latin.     Green. 

VISCERA  — Latin.    Plural  of  viscus. 

viscous.  \  Glutinous,sticky,tenacioug 

Viscus. — Latin.  Any  bowel,  or  en- 
trail,  or  internal  part,  as  the  heart, 
liver,  lungs,  brain,  &c. 

VIVI'PAROUS.— From  the  Latin,  vivus, 
alive,  and  pario,  I  bring  forth. 
Animals  whose  young  are  born 
without  being  hatched,  are  said  to 
be  viviparous. 

VOMER. — Latin.  A  thin,  flat  bone, 
which  constitutes  a  part  of  the  par- 
lition  between  the  nostrils. 

VULGA'RIS  — Latin.  Common,  vulgar. 

XIPHIAS. — Latin.     A  sword-fish. 

ZOOLOGY.  —  zoo-lo-gy.  From  the 
Greek,  xonn,  life,  and  logos,  a  dis- 
course. That  part  of  Natural  His- 
tory which  treats  of  animals. 

ZOOLOGIST. — One  skilled  in,  or  devoted 
to  the  study  of  zoology. 


FIRST-BOOKS 

OP 

NATURAL  HISTORY. 

PREPARED  FOR  THE  USE  OF 

SCHOOLS  AND  COLLEGES, 

BY   W.  S.  W.    RUSCHENBERGER,   M.     D., 

Surgeon  in  the  U.  S.  Navy;  Fellow  of  the  College  of  Physicians;  Hon.  Member  of  tkt 

Philadelphia  Medical  Society;  Member  of  the  Academy  of  Natural  Sciences  of 

Philadelphia,  c$-c.,  «$-c. 

FROM  THE  TEXT  OF  MILNE  EDWARDS  AND  ACIIILLE  COMTE, 

Professors  of  Natural  History  in  the  Colleges  of  Henri  IV.  and  Charlemagne. 

WITH   PLATES. 

The  Books  already  issued  have  received  the  highest  commendations  from  the  most 
tminent  men  of  science  and  learning'  throughout  the  country: — amongst  whom  are 

Drs.  Morton,  Dunglison,  Carson,  Goddard,  Pancoast,  Sewall,  Homer,  Valentine 
Mott,  Bedford,  Granville  Sharp  Pattison,  Wm.  Rush,  J.  W.  Webster,  Alban  Goldsmith, 
Thomas  Harris,  N.  W.  Cole,  B.  F.  Bache,  I.  Parrish,  Wm.  Harris,  W.  E.  A.  Aiken, 
J.  K.  Mitchell,  Harvey  Lindsly,  R.  Bridges,  Frederick  Hall,  James  O.  Pond,  Samuel  C. 
Smoot,  Thomas  Miller,  Chandler  R.  Gilman,  J.  Augustine  Smith,  John  A.  W.  Dunbar, 
Nathaniel  Potter,  John  C.  S.  Monkur,  Samuel  K.  Jennings,  Frank  H.  Hamilton,  George 
B.  Wood,.Joseph  Bullock,  A.  B.  Cox,  D.  Egbert,  J.  Worster,  B.  S.  Herndon,  Wm.  Elmer, 
W.  A.  Clendennen,  A.  McWilliams,  R.  D.  Mussey,  John  Styles,  Thomas  D.  Mutter, 
Thomas  Stewardson,  J.  F.  Brooke,  W.  H.  Pile. 

Hon.  Levi  Woodbury,  Hon.  Daniel  Sturgeon,  Hon.  Samuel  L.  Southard,  Hon.  Jamea 
Buchanan,  Hon.  G.  C.  Verplanck,  Hon.  Judge  Hopkinson. 

Bight  Rev.  Bishop  Charles  P.  Mcllvaine,  D.  D. 

Also,  from  Messrs.  J.  R.  Chandler,  R.  Sterling,  Hiram  Ketchum,  Wm.  Biddle,  S.  S. 
Griscom,  John  Frost,  J.  J.  Smith,  jr.,  Charles  Atherton,  S.  S.  Haldeman,  Isaac  Lea, 
&c.  <5cc.,  and  from  nearly  all  the  leading  reviewers  throughout  the  country. 

The  original  of  the  above  named  work  was  submitted  to  the  "  Royal  Council  of  Publie 
Instruction  "  in  France;  and  after  having  it  under  deliberation,  that  learned  body 
decided  upon  its  adoption  for  the  use  of  Schools  throughout  France.  Their  decision 
was  communicated  to  the  author  by  M.  Guizot  in  a  letter,  of  which  the  following  is  a 
translation : 

"MINISTRY  OF  PUBLIC   INSTRUCTION. 

University  of  France. 

Paris,  Uth  November,  1838. 
GENTLEMEN : 

The  Royal  Council,  in  its  sittings  of  the  5th  instant,  have  held  your  work  entitled 
First-Books  of  Natural  History,  under  deliberation,  which  I  have  approved,  and  infor- 
mation of  which  1  have  the  honour  of  communicating  to  you:  ii  is  expressed  in  the 
following  terms: 

The  Council,  &.C.,  having  examined  the  report  which  has  been  presented  to  it  on  a 
work  of  M.M.  Milne  Edwards,  and  Achille  Comte.  entitled  First-Books  of  Natural 
History,  decide  that  this  work  be  adopted  for  teaching  Natural  History  in  the  Colleges." 
You  are  at  liberty,  gentlemen,  to  give  this  decision  the  publicity  you  may  think 
proper.  For  my  part,  I  shall  communicate  it  to  the  Rectors,  that  they  may  recommend 
Hie  use  of  the  First- Books  of  Natural  History,  to  the  patrons  and  principals  of  the 
folleges  dependent  on  their  academies. 

Accept  gentlemen,  the  assurance  of  my  distinguished  consideration; 

The  Minister  of  Public  Instruction, 

GUIZOT 
M.M.  MILNE  EDWARDS  &  ACHILLE  COMTE.' 


PREFACE  TO  THE  FIFTH  EDITION. 

The  necessity  for  a  fifth  edition  of  this  volume,  in  less  than  one  year  after 
fhe  P-,  blication  of  the  first  impression,  is  strongly  indicative  of  the  estimate 
set  upon  the  work  by  the  public.  The  high  praise  which  has  been  bestowed 
upon  it,  by  those  whose  opinions  are  most  valuable,  and  the  favor  it  has 
met  in  various  parts  of  the  United  States,  have  induced  the  publisher?,  (at 
considerable  expense)  to  add  engravings  in  the  body  of  the  book,  illustra- 
te e  of  the  text,  which  has  been  carefully  revised. 

Though  designed  as  a  book  for  schools  and  colleges,  it  will  be  found  well 
adapted  for  the  general  reader  ;  and  students  of  medicine  will  find  it  of  use, 
especially  in  the  early  part  of  their  professional  studies. 

With  the  view  of  assisting  the  reader  in  understanding  and  remember- 
ing the  words  used  in  a  technical  sense,  their  etymologies  have  been  added 
in  the  glossary.  Many  of  these  words  are  derived  from  the  Greek ;  and,  in 
as  much  as  all  persons  who  are  in  pursuit  of  knowledge,  are  not  acquainted 
with  that  language,  the  words  from  it  have  been  printed  in  italics,  in  prefe- 
*ence  to  using  the  proper  Greek  characters ;  and  the  omega,  where  it  occurs 
has  been  designated  thus,  (6). 

I  wish  those  teachers,  (who  honor  me  by  using  this,  or  any  other  one  of 
my  series  of  First-Books),  to  clearly  understand,  it  is  not  my  design  that 
the  questions  at  the  foot  of  the  page  shall  be  answered  by  repeating  the 
text  from  memory ;  the  pupil  should  be  able  to  give  the  facts  in  his  own 
language,  and  show  he  comprehends  the  subject : — I  wish  my  readers  to 
obtain  knowledge,  definite  ideas  of  the  subjects  treated,  and  not  to  acquire 
merely  the  words  that  are  descriptive  of  them. 

It  is  hoped  that  nothing  is  now  wanting  to  render  this  little  work  a  clear 
concise,  and  axiomatic  account  of  PHYSIOLOGY  and  ANIMAL  MECHANISM,  and 
that  it  will  sustain  the  favorable  opinions  which  have  been  kindly  expressed 
of  it  W.  S.  W.  R. 

Philadelphia,  May  15,  1842. 

We  regard  the  introduction  of  this  work,  into  our  public  schools,  among 
the  highest  compliments  it  has  received,  for  we  feel  sure  that  the  gentlemen 
who  constitute  the  Committee  for  selecting  books,  possess  too  much  discern- 
ment and  general  knowledge,  to  pass"  favorably  upon  works  of  inferior  pre- 
tensions. The  following  gentlemen  composed  the  Committee  for  selecting 
books  for  the  use  of  Public  Schools. 

GEORGE  M.  WHARTON,  ESQ. 

THOMAS  H.  FORSYTH,  Esa. 

GEORGE  EMLEN,  JR.,  Esa. 

FRANCIS  LYONS,  ESQ. 

JOHN  C.  SMITH,  ESQ. 


HUSCHENBERGER'S    SEBI3S, 


FIRST   BOOKS 

OP 

NATURAL   HISTORY, 

FOR  SCHOOLS,  COLLEGES,  AND  FAMILIES. 


1.  ELEMENTS  OF 

ANATOMY  AND  PHYSIOLOGY. 

2.  ELEMENTS  OF 

MAMMALOGY, 

The   Natural   History    of  Quadrupeds. 

3.  ELEMENTS  OF 

OBNITHOLO  G  Y, 

The  Natural  History  of  Birds. 

4.  ELEMENTS  OF 

HEBPETOLOGY  AND  ICHTHYOLOGY, 

TL,  ??3iural  History  of  Reptile^  and  Fishes. 

5.  ELEMENTS  OF 

C  0  N  C  H  0  L  0  G  Y, 

Ti.      Natural  History  of  Shells  and  Mollusca. 

6.  ELEMENTS  OF 

E  N  TO  MO  LO  GY, 

The  Natural   History  of  Insects. 

7.  ELEMENTS  OF 

BOTANY, 

The   Natural    History    of    Plants. 

8.  ELEMENTS  OF 

G  E  0  LO  GY, 

The  Natural  History  of  the  Back's  Structure. 

Six  niimber*  have  been  issued,  and  have  already  met  with  the  most  flatter-] 
a  reception  ever  extended  to  any  work  issued  from  the  American  press/ 
'<  :e<j  into  the  Public  Schools  of  Pennsylvania,  and  in  nearly  all  tl 
isa  seminaries  of  learning  in  the  United  States. 


